World War 2

The 1930s and 1940s were marked by significant challenges.

A global economic crisis preceded World War II, the deadliest and most destructive war in history.

Approximately eighty million people lost their lives during World War II.

The war involved industrialized genocide and posed a threat to the existence of entire populations.

It introduced unprecedented military technology.

After the war, the United States emerged as the world's leading superpower.

The U.S. had the strongest economy and anticipated a prosperous consumer-driven economy.

The war left many unresolved questions and triggered new social forces that would impact future generations of Americans.

The U.S. entered World War II in 1941, two years after conflict began in Europe (1939).

The path to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor started much earlier, with Japan’s military actions beginning in the early 1930s.

The September 18 Incident in 1931 involved a staged explosion on Japanese-controlled railway tracks in Manchuria, serving as a pretext for invasion.

Following the incident, Japan's Guandong army quickly defeated Chinese forces, leading to a full-scale invasion of Manchuria.

By February 1932, Japan had established the puppet state of Manchukuo in Manchuria.

The conflict that ensued lasted 13 years and resulted in over 35 million deaths.

Japan delayed the invasion of China until 1937 due to internal political strife and economic stagnation.

The Japanese military eventually gained control, pushing for expansion to secure resources and regional dominance.

Chinese leaders sought assistance from the League of Nations, with U.S. support for their protests against Japanese aggression.

Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933 after being found guilty of inciting the September 18 Incident.

A full-scale invasion of China began on July 7, 1937, marked by brutal assaults and atrocities, including the Rape of Nanjing.

Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist government adopted a scorched-earth policy to slow Japanese advances, leading to significant civilian suffering.

American public sentiment was largely isolationist following World War I, with little military capability to intervene in the conflict.

The Japanese military was technologically advanced, posing a significant challenge for any potential U.S. intervention.

Chinese Nationalists sought aid from the U.S. during the war.

Soong May-ling, known as Madame Chiang, led lobbying efforts in Washington.

Madame Chiang was born in 1898 into a wealthy merchant family and educated in the U.S., graduating from Wellesley College in 1917.

She used her charm and understanding of American culture to support her husband, Chiang Kai-shek, and the Nationalist government.

Despite U.S. condemnation of Japanese aggression, no action was taken during the 1930s.

The Chinese Nationalists faced a civil war against Communist insurgents while battling Japanese invaders.

In 1935, the Nationalists expelled Communists from the coastal regions, while Mao Zedong began recruiting in Shaanxi Province.

Mao’s forces grew from 7,000 survivors after the Long March in 1935 to 1.2 million by the end of the war.

An uneasy truce allowed Nationalists and Communists to refocus on fighting Japanese invaders.

Despite Japanese occupation, the Chinese were unable to dislodge them but managed to stall their advance, resulting in a stalemate.

Major European powers were struggling with the aftermath of World War I.

The global economic crisis led to chaos across the continent.

Germany's Weimar Republic collapsed, leading to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazis.

Hitler promoted German racial supremacy, fascism, and military expansionism.

He became chancellor in 1933 after failed attempts to gain power.

Democratic traditions were dismantled, and leftist groups were eliminated.

Hitler rejected the Treaty of Versailles' punitive measures and rebuilt Germany's military.

He reoccupied territories lost in World War I and remilitarized the Rhineland.

During the Spanish Civil War (1936), Hitler and Mussolini supported Spanish fascists against communists.

Britain and France began to strengthen their militaries, wary of Germany's resurgence.

In "Mein Kampf," Hitler called for the unification of German peoples and the need for Lebensraum (living space) in Eastern Europe.

His goals included unification of Germans and territorial expansion.

In 1938, Germany annexed Austria and aimed for the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia.

Britain and France allowed the annexation without Czechoslovakia’s consent, hoping to appease Hitler.

Despite this, Hitler’s ambitions led to the annexation of the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 and demands on Poland.

Britain and France promised to go to war if Germany attacked Poland.

Germany signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with the Soviet Union to divide Poland.

The war began on September 1, 1939, when Germany invaded Poland, leading Britain and France to declare war two days later.

The German army employed Blitzkrieg tactics, emphasizing speed and maneuverability using tanks, planes, and motorized infantry.

Poland fell in three weeks, prompting Britain and France to prepare for a German attack.

The winter of 1939-1940 saw limited fighting, termed Sitzkrieg (sitting war).

In May 1940, Germany launched an attack into Western Europe, bypassing French defenses.

France fell to German forces in a matter of weeks, leading to its division and occupation.

Hitler then focused on Britain, initiating Operation Sea Lion, which required air superiority.

From June to October, the Luftwaffe battled the Royal Air Force in the Battle of Britain.

Despite being outnumbered, British pilots won, preventing a German invasion and prompting Churchill's famous declaration.

Britain faced air attacks during WWII despite being safe from invasion.

The Blitz was a bombing campaign by Hitler against British cities, targeting civilians.

Major cities bombed included London, Liverpool, and Manchester from September to May.

Children were evacuated to the countryside for safety; remaining residents sought refuge in shelters.

The Blitz ended in June 1941 as Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union.

Operation Barbarossa aimed to capture agricultural lands, oil fields, and eliminate the Soviet military threat.

The invasion on June 22 was the largest land invasion in history, breaking a non-aggression pact.

Initial German advances were successful, capturing vast territories and many prisoners.

The Soviets, however, were willing to endure significant losses and adapted their strategy.

Stalin relocated factories east of the Urals and implemented a "scorched earth" policy.

The German army faced logistical challenges, supply issues, and harsh winter conditions.

Major battles occurred at Leningrad, Stalingrad, and near Moscow, where the German army faltered.

The Soviet Union ultimately defeated Hitler's army, suffering 25 million casualties.

Approximately 80% of German casualties during the war occurred on the Eastern Front, including 850,000 at Stalingrad.

As Hitler advanced in Europe, Japan continued its military operations in the Pacific, leading to a deterioration of U.S.-Japan relations starting in 1939 with the dissolution of trade treaties and an oil embargo.

Japan's military, facing resource shortages, expanded its invasions in the Pacific, establishing the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere and waging war against European and independent nations.

Diplomatic ties between Japan and the U.S. collapsed, with the U.S. demanding Japan withdraw from China, while Japan viewed the oil embargo as an act of war.

Anticipating American intervention, Japan executed a planned surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, aiming to severely damage U.S. naval power, resulting in the death of 2,400 Americans.

The attack on Pearl Harbor prompted the U.S. to abandon its isolationist stance, leading to a declaration of war against Japan and the Axis powers, thus transforming separate conflicts into a global war.

The American war effort began with gradual military involvement, as U.S. supplies supported Britain's resistance against Germany, which was bolstered by U-boat attacks in the Atlantic.

The Allies gained the upper hand in the Battle of the Atlantic through superior tactics, technology, and intelligence from British code breakers, leading to significant losses for Hitler’s navy by 1942.

In North Africa, the British victory at El Alamein in 1942 and the subsequent arrival of American troops marked a turning point, leading to the expulsion of Axis forces from the region by 1943.

President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill strategized at the Casablanca Conference, deciding to pursue the Axis forces into Italy and declaring the Allies' demand for unconditional surrender.

The Army Air Force initiated a strategic bombing campaign against Germany, facing initial losses due to unescorted bombers, but later improved accuracy and protection with the introduction of long-range escort fighters.

In the wake of the Soviets’ victory at Stalingrad, the Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) met in Tehran in November 1943. Dismissing Africa and Italy as a sideshow, Stalin demanded that Britain and the United States invade France to relieve pressure on the Eastern Front. Churchill was hesitant, but Roosevelt was eager. The invasion was tentatively scheduled for 1944.

In November 1943, the Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) met in Tehran, where Stalin urged an invasion of France to ease pressure on the Eastern Front, leading to plans for D-Day in 1944.

The campaign in Italy proved challenging, as difficult terrain slowed Allied progress, and despite heavy casualties at Anzio, a new Italian government ultimately made peace with the Allies.

On D-Day, American, British, and Canadian forces launched Operation Overlord, the largest amphibious assault in history, successfully landing at Normandy and liberating Paris two months later.

The Nazis faced defeats on both fronts, with failed counterattacks and the Battle of the Bulge, while the Soviet Union advanced into Germany, culminating in the capture of Berlin in May 1945 after Hitler's suicide.

The Allies met at Yalta to plan for postwar Europe, and at Potsdam, they decided to divide Germany and Berlin into occupation zones, with Stalin agreeing to enter the war against Japan shortly thereafter.

Following V-E Day, Americans shifted focus to the ongoing Pacific War, which began with Japan's takeover of the Philippines after the Pearl Harbor attack, leading to the Bataan Death March where 10,000 prisoners died.

The tide of the war changed in the summer of 1942 with significant American naval victories at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway, prompting the U.S. military to adopt an island-hopping strategy to reclaim territory from Japan.

The conflict in the Pacific was marked by brutal combat, with Japanese soldiers employing fierce tactics, including suicidal charges, resulting in high casualties on both sides, notably at Iwo Jima, where 17,000 Japanese soldiers held out against 70,000 Marines.

American bombers began targeting Japanese cities in early 1945, utilizing incendiary weapons that caused massive firestorms, killing approximately 100,000 civilians in Tokyo alone; over sixty cities were bombed.

The war concluded after the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, leading to Japan's surrender announced by Emperor Hirohito on August 15, with formal surrender signed on September 2, 1945, aboard the USS Missouri.

Nearly 18 million men served in World War II.

Initially, volunteers joined the military after the Pearl Harbor attack, but over 10 million were drafted.

Volunteers could choose assignments and some preempted the draft by enlisting.

Recruits deemed I-A (“fit for service”) underwent basic training focused on physical development and weapon use.

Soldiers were indoctrinated into military life and the chain of command.

After basic training, soldiers received specialized training based on their roles (e.g., combat infantrymen and radio operators).

Combat soldiers and Marines faced intense on-ground combat after being transported to the front.

Soldiers marched carrying heavy packs (20-50 pounds) with essential supplies and weapons.

Sailors spent long months at sea in cramped conditions aboard ships, with 60,000 losing their lives during the war.

The Air Force was part of the U.S. Army during WWII, involving ground and air crews in extensive bombing campaigns.

Large bombers like the B-17 required various crew members and faced significant dangers, resulting in heavy casualties among airmen.

Soldiers in Europe faced harsh winter conditions and challenging terrain, while those in the Pacific dealt with extreme heat, humidity, and diseases.

Cultural differences led to misunderstandings; for instance, American views on surrender contrasted sharply with Japanese beliefs.

Historical anti-Asian prejudices influenced American soldiers’ perceptions of Japanese combatants, leading to atrocities in the Pacific.

Economies play a crucial role in winning wars, alongside militaries.

The war transformed American factories to produce wartime goods and revitalized the economy.

It helped pull the U.S. out of the Great Depression and initiated a period of economic prosperity.

Roosevelt’s New Deal had mitigated the Depression's effects, but the economy was still struggling in the 1930s.

The onset of war in Europe led to increased American arms and supply sales to Allies, despite initial isolationism.

The attack on Pearl Harbor prompted the U.S. to fully mobilize its economy for war.

Government agencies like the War Production Board managed wartime economic production.

Unemployment plummeted as the economy shifted from a quarter of the workforce being jobless to struggling to fill positions.

Government spending during the war doubled all previous federal spending, leading to a significant budget deficit.

Economic intervention during the war eliminated unemployment and spurred growth.

The post-war economy was vastly different from pre-war conditions.

Civilian consumer production was sacrificed for military needs, limiting consumer choice and leading to rationing of goods.

The housing industry faced shutdowns, causing urban overcrowding.

The Roosevelt administration encouraged savings and war bond purchases to control inflation.

War bond drives, promoted by celebrities, successfully funded the war effort and helped manage inflation.

The federal government raised income taxes, increasing the top marginal tax rate to 94%.

U.S. economy boomed during wartime, leading to virtually no unemployment.

Many African Americans migrated from the South to the industrial North.

As men joined the military, women entered the workforce in large numbers.

The U.S. sought labor from Mexico to fill workforce gaps through the Bracero Program (1942-1964).

The program was a binational agreement involving the State Department, Department of Labor, and Department of Justice.

Secured five million contracts across twenty-four states.

Agreement signed in July 1942 to bring contracted workers to California; Texas delayed contracts until 1947 due to discrimination.

The Bracero Program continued until the 1960s and faced criticism for exploitative labor conditions.

Ex-braceros shared mixed feelings about the program; some described harsh treatment, while others viewed it as a blessing due to job opportunities and pay.

The program helped reestablish Mexican migration and institutionalized migrant farm work in the U.S., increasing the Mexican presence in southern and western states.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt encouraged American women to support the war effort during World War II.

He viewed women's participation as critical for achieving victory.

Women were expected to take on various roles to free men for military service.

While many women chose to stay home or volunteer, a significant number joined the workforce or enlisted in the military.

World War II created unprecedented labor opportunities for women, especially in industrial sectors previously dominated by men.

Women applied for jobs in munitions factories, exemplified by the iconic image of Rosie the Riveter.

Rosie the Riveter symbolized female factory labor during the war with the slogan "We Can Do It!".

Women also filled various auxiliary government positions, including over a million administrative roles traditionally held by men.

Many women who chose not to work engaged in volunteer opportunities, particularly with the American Red Cross.

The American Red Cross encouraged women to volunteer locally, resulting in:

- Organizing community events

- Packing and shipping nearly 500,000 tons of medical supplies overseas

- Preparing 27 million care packages for prisoners of war

Female volunteers were required to certify as nurse’s aides, benefiting hospital staff facing personnel shortages.

Other organizations, including churches and social clubs, provided additional volunteering opportunities for women.

Over 350,000 women served in various military branches, including:

- Army and Navy Nurse Corps Reserves

- Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps

- Navy’s Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service

- Coast Guard’s SPARs

- Marine Corps units

The Nurse Corps Reserves commissioned 105,000 nurses, who worked in hospitals and medical units.

Black women faced Jim Crow segregation in civilian and military roles, with limited opportunities and menial assignments.

Segregation persisted in factory settings and the military, with only the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps and Nurse Corps Reserves accepting Black women.

Post-war, most women returned to traditional roles as men resumed jobs, while military women struggled to access veteran’s benefits.

The nation was unprepared to meet the postwar needs of women who contributed significantly during the war.

World War II significantly impacted racial relationships in the United States, affecting African Americans, Mexicans and Mexican Americans, Jews, and Japanese Americans.

In early 1941, A. Philip Randolph threatened a march on Washington, D.C. to protest discrimination against Black workers in defense industries.

President Roosevelt responded by issuing Executive Order 8802, banning racial and religious discrimination in defense industries and establishing the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC).

Despite the order, the armed forces remained segregated during the war, and the FEPC had limited influence.

The percentage of Black workers in defense industries increased from 3% in 1942 to 9% in 1945.

Over one million African Americans served in World War II, primarily in segregated, noncombat units led by white officers.

The number of Black officers in the military grew from five in 1940 to over seven thousand by 1945.

The Tuskegee Airmen, an all-Black pilot squadron, completed over 1,500 missions and gained recognition for their performance.

Near the war's end, the army and navy began integrating some of their units and facilities, leading to the full integration of armed forces ordered in 1948.

Black Americans served in segregated armed forces and contributed on the home front as riveters, welders, and by buying victory bonds.

The Pittsburgh Courier launched the Double V campaign, urging African Americans to fight against Nazism abroad and racial inequality at home.

The campaign encouraged enlistment, volunteering, and the fight against segregation and discrimination.

NAACP membership grew from 50,000 to 500,000 during the war.

The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) was established in 1942, promoting nonviolent direct action for desegregation.

Between 1940 and 1950, 1.5 million Black southerners migrated from the Jim Crow South to the North, demonstrating opposition to racism.

Racial tensions led to riots in 1943 in cities like Mobile, Beaumont, and Harlem, with the Detroit riot being the deadliest.

The FBI targeted foreign nationals for possible internment based on loyalty suspicions under the Alien Enemy Act.

Executive Order 9066 authorized the removal of individuals from designated exclusion zones, affecting nearly a third of the U.S.

Over 110,000 Japanese and Japanese-descended individuals were interned, many of whom were American citizens, losing homes and jobs.

The 1982 report "Personal Justice Denied" attributed internment to race prejudice, war hysteria, and political leadership failures.

In 1988, President Reagan signed a law apologizing for internment and providing reparations to survivors.

The Allies uncovered the horrors of the Holocaust as they advanced into Germany and Poland, revealing the systematic murder of eleven million civilians.

American officials initially showed little concern for Nazi persecutions in the 1930s.

The State Department and U.S. embassies did little to assist European Jews during early troubles.

President Roosevelt spoke out against persecution and withdrew the U.S. ambassador to Germany after Kristallnacht.

Roosevelt prompted the 1938 Evian Conference to address the Jewish refugee problem, but it resulted in no concrete solutions.

The U.S. turned away numerous Jewish refugees seeking asylum.

In 1939, the German ship St. Louis carried over 900 Jewish refugees who were unable to find a country willing to accept them.

The U.S. quota system prevented passengers from obtaining visas, and a plea to the president for special permission was ignored.

The St. Louis was forced to return to Europe, and many passengers later perished in the Holocaust.

Anti-Semitism influenced U.S. policy; Roosevelt avoided increasing immigration quotas due to political concerns.

The Wagner-Rogers Bill, which aimed to allow 20,000 German-Jewish children into the U.S., was defeated despite support from Eleanor Roosevelt.

Knowledge of the Holocaust's extent developed slowly; initial reports of death camps were doubted by U.S. officials.

Options like bombing camps or railroads were rejected by military and civilian leaders, limiting U.S. response.

In 1944, Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau advocated for Jewish refugees and established the War Refugees Board (WRB).

The WRB saved approximately 200,000 Jews and 20,000 others, but such efforts were considered too late in the war.

Morgenthau eventually persuaded Roosevelt to publicly condemn Nazi persecution, but significant action had already been delayed.

Americans celebrated the end of World War II and aimed to establish a postwar order for global peace and domestic prosperity.

The alliance with the Soviet Union was expected to collapse; nonetheless, stability and economic security for returning veterans were prioritized.

The League of Nations' failure to prevent aggression by Germany, Italy, and Japan raised doubts about global organizations ensuring peace.

Franklin Roosevelt, having witnessed the League's rejection, initially favored an informal agreement among major powers (the "Four Policemen") for postwar security.

Roosevelt's view changed due to the influence of Secretary of State Cordell Hull and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, leading him to support a new global organization.

American public opinion shifted significantly in favor of a global organization during the war, with support rising from 33% in 1937 to 81% by 1945.

Roosevelt promoted the Four Freedoms (speech, worship, from want, from fear) and signed the Atlantic Charter, which emphasized self-determination and postwar cooperation.

The term "United Nations" was first used by Roosevelt to describe the Allies, and it later became the name of the postwar organization.

At the Tehran Conference in 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill persuaded Stalin to participate in discussions on the UN's structure.

The Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944 established a framework for the UN, including a Security Council and General Assembly.

The UN charter was signed by fifty nations on June 26, 1945, following further negotiations in San Francisco.

Anticipating postwar challenges, American leaders focused on integrating returning servicemen into the economy to avoid another depression.

The G.I. Bill, created by Henry Colmery and supported across the political spectrum, was passed in 1944, providing various benefits to honorably discharged veterans.

The G.I. Bill addressed the return of over 15 million armed services members, including around 350,000 women, to civilian life.

It provided unemployment benefits for veterans unable to find work, with about 8 million veterans receiving $4 billion in total.

The legislation promoted access to postsecondary education, with the VA covering tuition, fees, supplies, and living stipends.

Enrollment in accredited colleges and universities increased significantly, from 1.5 million in 1940 to 3.6 million in 1960.

The VA disbursed over $14 billion in educational aid within a decade.

Home ownership rates rose from 40% in 1945 to 60% in 1955, aided by the elimination of down payment requirements for veterans.

Nearly 4 million veterans purchased homes through the G.I. Bill, contributing to a construction boom and postwar growth.

The VA assisted around 200,000 veterans in acquiring farms and provided financing for small businesses.

Not all groups benefited equally; men qualified for benefits more than women due to military personnel limits, and colleges prioritized male veterans.

African Americans faced discrimination, being forced into overcrowded historically Black colleges and limited in home ownership due to segregation.

Other marginalized groups, including veterans accused of homosexuality, were also unable to access G.I. Bill benefits.

The G.I. Bill had significant and lasting impacts, fostering the postwar economic boom and shaping American middle-class life.

The United States entered World War II during a significant economic depression.

The country exited the war with an unprecedented economic boom.

The war's outcome left the United States stronger and optimistic about the future.

New challenges emerged postwar, including the threat posed by Stalin's Soviet Union and the spread of nuclear weapons.

Americans fought for global democracy, yet witnessed its erosion globally through colonial regimes and domestically through segregation and injustice.

The war triggered powerful forces that would transform the United States both domestically and internationally.