US Middle East Policies and their Consequences

Strategic Significance of the Middle East

  • Global Impact of Policy: The Middle East policies of the United States affect a wider area than the intended region, with impacts often felt by the entire world. These policies are not formulated in isolation but are rooted in history, geopolitical realities, strategic implications, and national interests.
  • Geographical Importance: The region contains the world's most critical strategic, naval, economic, and political chokepoints, including:     * The Arabian Sea     * The Persian Sea     * The Sea of Oman     * The Red Sea     * The Mediterranean Sea
  • Energy Resources: The region houses the world's largest energy reservoirs, placing it at the center of the "strategic energy ellipse."
  • Cultural and Religious Hub: It is the nerve center of the Muslim world and a major reference point for Christianity and Judaism, containing holy sites such as:     * Jerusalem, Mecca, and Medina.     * Sacred Shiite sites located in Iran and Iraq.

Historical Context of US Engagement (1917–1956)

  • Post-World War I Developments: Two incidents radically altered the geopolitical landscape:     * The dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire.     * The Balfour Declaration (November 2, 1917): A promise by British Foreign Secretary A. J. Balfour to Lord Rothschild to provide a homeland for the Jewish people.
  • Colonial Legacies: The United Kingdom and France divided Arab lands for national interests and installed chosen regimes to protect those interests after physical withdrawal. This led to persistent skirmishes between newly born Arab states and between Arabs and Jews.
  • Post-World War II and Israel's Creation (1948): The 1948 Arab-Israel war established two realities:     * Israel’s survival depended on Western patrons.     * Arab states were not strong enough to defeat Israel as long as it was allied with the West.
  • The Suez Canal Crisis (1956): This event triggered direct American intervention. When Britain, France, and Israel colluded to regain control of the Suez Canal, the US opposed the move diplomatically, fearing an expansion of Soviet/communist influence among Arab leaders. The tripartite alliance was forced to retreat under US pressure.

Cold War Strategies and the Two-Pillar Policy

  • Regional Alignments: As Egypt and Iraq tilted toward the Soviet Union, the US strengthened ties with non-Arab states: Israel, Iran, and Turkey. Israel was favored due to its democratic structure and Western-aligned lifestyle.
  • 1967 War: Following the Israeli victory, the US-Israel partnership became a formal military and strategic alliance. The US provided advanced weaponry and significant funds to ensure Israeli invincibility.
  • The "Two-Pillar Strategy": After the 1971 British withdrawal from the Persian Gulf, the US relied on Iran and Saudi Arabia as security guarantors. Iran was the primary source of strength due to its military capability.
  • The 1973 Yom Kippur War: Gulf states restricted oil exports to the US and Israel's supporters. This forced US policymakers to realize the intrinsic link between the politics of the Gulf and the rest of the Middle East.
  • The 1979 Turning Point: The US lost a key ally when the Iranian Revolution toppled the Shah and established an Islamic republic. Simultaneously, the USSR invaded Afghanistan, and Iraq attacked Iran (1980).

The Iran-Iraq War and the Pursuit of National Interest

  • Calculated Neutrality and Supply: The Carter administration declared "strict neutrality," but the US eventually supplied arms to both sides to prolong the conflict and weaken both adversaries:     * Arms were supplied directly to Iraq starting in 1982.     * Arms were supplied to Iran through Israel (linked to the Iran/Contra matters).
  • The War of Tankers (1986): This provided the US an opportunity to reinforce naval forces in the Gulf and secure its interests by flagging oil tankers.
  • Ethical Implications: The US focused solely on its regional interests, showing no compunction for the millions of people in Iran and Iraq who were victims of the unbridled supply of arms.

Post-Cold War Expansion and the Peace Process (1990–2000)

  • First Gulf War (1990-1991): Saddam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait provided the US with a "much-awaited opportunity" to expand its military presence in the oil-rich Gulf.
  • Containment Efforts: Throughout the 1990s, the US followed a policy of clipping anti-American forces (Iran, Iraq, Syria) through UN sanctions and missile attacks.
  • The 1990s Peace Initiatives:     * Madrid Conference (1991): Initiated dialogue.     * Oslo Accord (1993): Proposed Israeli withdrawal from the Gaza Strip and Jericho and the establishment of a Palestinian Interim Self-Government Authority within a five-year transitional period based on Security Council Resolutions 242 (1967) and 338 (1973).     * Failures at Camp David (2000): Meetings at Taba (1995), Wye River (1998), and Sharm el-Sheikh (1999) led to the 2000 Camp David summit. Failure on final status issues (borders, Jerusalem, refugees) ignited the second intifada.

Post-9/11 Policies and the Invasion of Iraq

  • Project for the New American Century (PNAC): In 2000, PNAC published "Rebuilding America's Defenses," suggesting the invasion of Iraq was inevitable for US pre-eminence and noting that a "catastrophic and catalyzing event—like a new Pearl Harbor" would be needed to implement these strategies.
  • The Bush Doctrine: Senior officials immediately looked to capitalize on 9/11:     * Donald Rumsfeld asked aides for plans to strike Iraq despite no evidence linking it to 9/11.     * Colin Powell argued Afghanistan would be an easier initial invasion.
  • Objectives for the Attack on Iraq (2003):     * Neutralize threats to Israel and pressure Syria.     * Demoralize Palestinians into accepting a settlement favored by Israel.     * Further the interests of US oil companies, construction firms (e.g., Halliburton), and military industrial complexes.     * Secure a cheaper, safer alternative to Saudi oil.

The "War on Terror" and the "Axis of Evil"

  • Targeting Iran: In the January 2002 State of the Union speech, Iran was declared part of the "axis of evil," charged with sponsoring terrorism and pursuing weapons of mass destruction.
  • Unconditional Support for Israel: During the post-9/11 era, the US House of Representatives passed Resolution 392, expressing solidarity with Israel and stating that the number of Israelis killed by suicide attacks, proportional to the US population, would be approximately $9,000$.
  • Failed Reform Initiatives:     * Middle East Partnership Initiative (MEPI): Focused on economics, education, politics, and women's empowerment.     * Greater Middle East Initiative (GMEI): Aimed at democratic reform and knowledge-based societies.     * The Road Map for Peace: Created by a "Quartet" (US, Russia, EU, UN) but never implemented.
  • The Arab Peace Initiative (2002): A proposal by the Arab League for full Israeli withdrawal from 1967 territories and a sovereign Palestinian state in exchange for normalized relations. The US did not work seriously to implement it.

Obama Administration Trends

  • Legislative Continuity: Before the transition, the US signed the Status of Forces Agreement and the Strategic Framework Agreement with Iraq.
  • Withdrawal Strategy: In a speech at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, President Obama outlined a shift from combat to "sustained diplomacy."
  • Policy Sameness: Despite "principled engagement" (Cairo University speech), objectives remained constant: control of energy, presence at chokepoints, and the security of Israel.

Consequences for the Middle East

  • Militarization and Dependency: The region is highly militarized, yet states depend entirely on the West for equipment, repair, and expertise. There is a lack of indigenous military industrial complexes.
  • External Interference: Leaders often check for American approval before taking sovereign steps, limiting cooperation with countries like China or Russia.
  • Radicalization of the Masses: The US "War on Terror" is perceived by many Muslims as a war against Islam, fueled by the exposure of torture at Abu Ghraib and Guantanamo Bay.
  • Disunity and Sectarianism: The US is accused of modern "divide and rule" strategies, fueling sectarian differences through media and portraying Iran as a threat to Sunni Arab states to maintain its foothold.
  • The Human Cost in Iraq:     * Civilian deaths have soared to over $1,000,000$.     * Destruction of basic infrastructure and demographic shifts.     * Psychological impact on a generation that has experienced torture and loss of sovereignty.

Consequences for the United States

  • Domestic Radicalization: The US-Israel relationship affects the socio-ideological norms of the US. The "Christian Right" uses the Bible to justify the "transfer"/ethnic cleansing of Palestinians as a "moral duty."
  • Policymaking at Stake: Former Israeli Premier Ehud Olmert boasted about instructing President Bush to have Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice abstain from a UN Security Council resolution she herself had organized. This exemplifies "the tail whirling the dog around."
  • Damaged Global Image: The US is increasingly viewed as a colonial power with both a resource-extraction and an ideological agenda.
  • Wedge with Europe: Unilateralism in Iraq caused a rift with allies like France and Germany, leading to petty domestic reactions such as the renaming of "French Fries" to "Freedom Fries" in the House of Representatives cafeteria.

Consequences for the World

  • Paradigm Shift in Law: Terrorism moved from being a courtroom crime to a pretext for invading sovereign states.
  • Preemptive Strike Doctrine: The US doctrine of using force whenever "deemed necessary" has encouraged other regional powers, like Israel and India, to conduct or threaten preemptive strikes against enemies.
  • Erosion of Human Rights: The global "War on Terror" provides a pretext for draconian internal security acts against peaceful dissent globally.
  • Transformation of Political Struggles: Movements for self-determination are now often bracketed with terrorism, forcing political struggles to transform into armed movements.

Questions & Discussion

  • The Olmert-Bush Exchange: During the Gaza war of 2009, Ehud Olmert claimed he told President Bush, "You can't vote in favor of this resolution [the ceasefire]," resulting in Condoleezza Rice being "left pretty shamed" as she abstained from a resolution she had personally arranged.
  • The Shift in US Leadership: The text notes the transition to Obama's "new era of American leadership" while questioning if the underlying strategic goals have actually changed from the Bush era.
  • The Role of PNAC: Discussion centers on how influential neoconservatives in the Bush administration utilized the "new Pearl Harbor" of 9/11 to implement long-standing plans for Iraqi invasion.