Week 12.1

Updated Schedule: Adjustments may have been made to previously announced class timings and agenda. These updates emphasize the ongoing evolution in class planning to enhance learning.
Agenda: The focus for this week includes explorations of significant linguistic theories including the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis and an examination of linguistic socialization in the context of gender.

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, grounded in the work of linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, posits that the structure of a language affects its speakers' worldview or cognition. Sapir's assertion from 1929 highlights that individuals are shaped by the language that expresses their society:
- Edward Sapir (1929): “Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society.”
- Benjamin Whorf (1940): “We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages. The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds - and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.”

Linguistic Determinism: The thesis that language controls our thought processes; we think in terms of our linguistic structures.
Linguistic Relativism: The viewpoint that language shapes our thought processes and perceptions.

The concept of time in the Hopi language is fundamentally different, as discussed by Whorf.
The example of "Eskimo" words for snow used by Franz Boas illustrates linguistic diversity and cultural specificity in vocabulary — a common claim in early support for Sapir-Whorf.

Eskaleut languages, which include Aleut and Yupik languages, are noted to be distinct from other Indigenous American languages and are categorized as polysynthetic languages, where a single word can express a complex idea through the combination of multiple morphemes.
An example: The Yupik word Tusaatsiarunnanngittualuujunga translates to “I can’t hear very well,” showcasing this polysynthetic structure.

Examples of specific words for snow:
- qaniɣ/qanik: 'falling snow’
- aniɣu: 'fallen snow’
- apun/aput: 'snow on the ground’
Example of a sentence: Kaipiallrulliniuk: “The two of them were apparently very hungry.”

Critiques on the new understanding of language and thought, such as those presented by Steven Pinker, argue that the way we perceive colors affects how we learn words for them, challenging the notion that language determines thought.
Paul Bloom and Frank C. Keil’s stance in 2001 suggests that while language is a tool for expressing and storing ideas, it does not inherently contribute to our initial capacity for generating these ideas.

Gender and Language: Lera Boroditsky's research indicates that grammatical gender can influence thought. For instance, in German, the word for "bridge" (die brücke) is feminine, whereas in Spanish (el puente), it is masculine. Native speakers may ascribe characteristics of their language's grammatical gender to the nouns themselves.
Concept of Time: A study by Casasanto (2008) states: “People who talk differently about time also think about it differently, in ways that correspond to the preferred metaphors in their native languages.”

For discussion, students are encouraged to reflect on personal experiences and prepare a comparative table listing evidence for and against both the strong and weak versions of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

The concept of markedness in gendered language highlights that male forms are often considered unmarked while female forms are marked. Examples include:
- actor/actress
- god/goddess
- policeman/policewoman
Language evolution indicates that female designations are frequently replaced by more neutral or male-dominated terms like police officer and postal worker.

Naming conventions have evolved, with traditional titles such as Mrs./Miss being supplanted by Ms., and male titles remaining largely unchanged. Additionally, the phrasing of concepts tends to favor typical members over less typical ones (Smith & Medin, 1981).
- Example: The concept of 'Bird' generally portrays a prototype image, influencing perceptions when categorizing examples like 'Phone' or 'Professor'.

Historically, the term 'he' was used generically, but critiques arose questioning its neutrality, particularly in sentences like “If an author is talented, he will win an award.” The singular “they” has emerged as a way to address individuals without gender specification, becoming more accepted over time.
Prior to the 18th century, gendered language didn't have a defined structure where 'he' referred solely to men and 'she' referred to women. This led to a shift where grammarians later designated 'he' as a generic term. This restructure poses questions about whether terms like generic he or generic man are genuinely inclusive.
The evolution of singular 'they' illustrates a societal response toward non-gendered language: “Somebody called for you, but they wouldn’t leave a message.”

Studies indicate that generic terms like 'man' and 'he' do not maintain an unbiased reference and often revert to male frameworks in children's literature, highlighting that language acquisition shows a preference towards identifying these terms as male.
A comparative study on pronoun use in children’s reference books about animals reveals the tendency to ascribe different genders to different species, with results illustrating how many illustrations prefer he over she, reflecting potential gender biases in children's learning materials.

Students are tasked with analyzing a children's book to explore its teachings regarding gender and the forms of socialization depicted therein. This analytical exercise encourages critical thinking about the content children are exposed to through literature.

A playful inquiry into behaviors—“How does a dinosaur eat all his food? Does he burp, does he belch, or make noises quite rude?”—highlights how children's literature often uses humor while engaging with educational topics, potentially guiding behaviors and social norms in children.