Unit 3.8/3.9 TLDR AT END
Operant Conditioning - a concept developed by B.F. Skinner, is a learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.
This form of conditioning relies on the association between a behavior and its
consequence, which can either increase or decrease the likelihood of the behavior being
repeated.
Law of Effect - proposed by Edward Thorndike, states that behaviors followed by
satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by
unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.
Reinforcement - is any event that strengthens or increases the frequency of a
behavior. There are two types: positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.
Positive Reinforcement: This involves presenting a pleasant stimulus after a
behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. A manager
praises an employee for meeting a sales target, which motivates the employee to
continue performing well.
Negative Reinforcement: This involves removing an unpleasant stimulus after a
behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. A student
studies diligently to avoid parental disapproval, thereby increasing their studying
behavior.
Punishment - is any event that weakens or decreases the frequency of a behavior.
There are two types: positive punishment and negative punishment.
Positive Punishment: This involves presenting an unpleasant stimulus after a
behavior, decreasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. A child is
given extra chores for breaking curfew, which decreases the likelihood of the child
breaking curfew in the future.
Negative Punishment: This involves removing a pleasant stimulus after a
behavior, decreasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. A teenager's
video game privileges are taken away for failing to do chores, reducing the
likelihood of neglecting chores in the future.
Reinforcement Discrimination - in operant conditioning refers to the ability to
distinguish between different stimuli and respond appropriately. An organism learns to
respond to a specific stimulus but not to other similar stimuli. This is achieved through
differential reinforcement, where only the desired behavior in the presence of a
particular stimulus is reinforced. A student learns to raise their hand before speaking in
class when the teacher is present but not when interacting with peers during recess,
demonstrating the ability to discriminate between different social contexts.
Generalization - is the tendency for a learned behavior to occur in response to stimuli
that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. This process helps organisms apply
learned behaviors to new but similar situations, enhancing adaptability. A child who is
praised for saying "please" and "thank you" at home begins to use these polite phrases
in other social settings, such as at school or with friends, demonstrating generalization of
courteous behavior.
Shaping - is a method used in operant conditioning where successive approximations of
a desired behavior are reinforced. Instead of waiting for the subject to exhibit the exact
target behavior, behaviors that are progressively closer to the desired behavior are
rewarded until the target behavior is achieved. In animal training, a dog trainer might
use shaping to teach a dog to fetch a ball. Initially, the dog is rewarded for looking at the
ball, then for moving towards it, then for touching it, and finally for picking it up and
bringing it back. Each step is reinforced until the complete behavior is performed reliably.
Instinctive Drift - refers to the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors
that interfere with a conditioned response. Despite reinforcement, natural behaviors can
sometimes override learned behaviors. In a classic experiment by Keller and Marian
Breland, raccoons were trained to deposit coins into a piggy bank. However, over time,
the raccoons began to revert to their instinctive behavior of rubbing the coins together,
similar to how they would handle food. Despite reinforcement, their natural tendencies
overrode the conditioned behavior.
Superstitious Behavior - in the context of operant conditioning occurs when an
individual associates a behavior with a consequence that is not causally related, due to
coincidental reinforcement. This type of behavior was famously demonstrated by B.F.
Skinner in his experiments with pigeons, where the birds developed peculiar actions (like
turning in circles) thinking these actions caused food to be delivered. An athlete might
wear a "lucky" item of clothing during games, believing it influences their performance.
Despite no actual causal link, the item becomes associated with successful outcomes,
reinforcing the behavior.
Learned Helplessness - occurs when an individual is exposed to uncontrollable and
aversive events, leading to a perception of powerlessness and subsequent failure to act
even when opportunities to avoid the aversive stimuli are available. This concept was
introduced by Martin Seligman through experiments with dogs that were exposed to
inescapable shocks. In educational settings, students who repeatedly experience failure
despite their efforts may develop a sense of helplessness, resulting in decreased
academic performance and reluctance to engage in future learning opportunities.
Aversive Consequences - involve the use of negative stimuli to decrease the likelihood
of a behavior recurring. This can include punishments or negative reinforcement
(removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a behavior). In the workplace, a manager
might use reprimands or demotions to discourage tardiness. While this may reduce
lateness, it could also create a hostile work environment, affecting employee morale and
productivity.
Schedules of Reinforcement - refer to the timing and pattern of delivering
reinforcements after a desired behavior. There are two main types: Continuous
Reinforcement and Partial Reinforcement.
Scalloped Graph - is a characteristic pattern of responding that occurs when behavior
is reinforced on a fixed interval schedule. It shows a gradual increase in responding as
the time for reinforcement approaches, followed by a rapid decline after reinforcement is
delivered.
Continuous Reinforcement - In continuous reinforcement, every occurrence of the
desired behavior is reinforced. This schedule is effective for initial learning but can lead
to rapid extinction (disappearance of the behavior when reinforcement stops).
Partial Reinforcement - In partial reinforcement, only some occurrences of the desired
behavior are reinforced. This can be based on several schedules:
Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of
responses (e.g., every 5th response).
Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable
number of responses, varying around an average (e.g., on average every
5th response).
Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after
a fixed time interval (e.g., every 2 minutes).
Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement is delivered for the first response
after an unpredictable time interval, varying around an average (e.g., on
average every 2 minutes).
Social Learning Theory - proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of
observing, imitating, and modeling behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of
others. Children often learn new skills or behaviors by watching and imitating their
parents, teachers, or peers. For instance, a child learns to tie their shoes by observing an
older sibling demonstrating the process.
Vicarious Conditioning - extends classical conditioning principles to include learning
through observing the consequences of others' actions. It involves learning to anticipate
a behavior's consequences by watching others being reinforced or punished for
performing that behavior. In a workplace setting, employees observe a colleague receive
praise (positive reinforcement) for completing a project on time. This observation
encourages others to adopt similar behaviors to receive similar rewards.
Insight Learning - proposed by Wolfgang Köhler, refers to sudden and novel
realizations of the solution to a problem. It involves grasping the underlying principles or
relationships in a situation without prior experience or explicit trial-and-error learning. A
chimpanzee in Köhler's experiments suddenly using a stick to reach a banana outside its
cage, demonstrating an understanding of tools and problem-solving beyond simple trial
and error.
Latent Learning - studied by Edward Tolman, refers to learning that occurs without
immediate reinforcement or motivation. The learned information is not immediately
expressed in behavior but can be demonstrated when a suitable incentive or motivation
arises. A person learns the layout of a new city while commuting to work daily, without
consciously trying to memorize the streets. Later, this latent learning becomes evident
when they need to navigate the city without a map.
Cognitive Maps - proposed by Edward Tolman, are mental representations of spatial
relationships or arrangements of objects in the environment. They enable individuals to
navigate and interact with their surroundings effectively. A frequent traveler creates a
mental map of airport terminals and gates, allowing them to navigate efficiently without
relying on signs or maps.
-TLDR-
Operant Conditioning: A way we learn by associating behaviors with their consequences (rewards or punishments).
Law of Effect: Behaviors that are rewarded are more likely to happen again; behaviors that are punished are less likely to happen again.
Reinforcement: Anything that increases the chance a behavior will happen again. (Think of positive as adding and negative as taking away something*)
Positive Reinforcement: Giving something pleasant to encourage a behavior (e.g., praising someone for doing a good job).
Negative Reinforcement: Taking away something unpleasant to encourage a behavior (e.g., stopping a loud noise when a person does the right thing).
Punishment: Anything that decreases the chance a behavior will happen again.
Positive Punishment: Adding something unpleasant to discourage a behavior (e.g., giving extra chores for misbehavior).
Negative Punishment: Taking away something pleasant to discourage a behavior (e.g., taking away a teen’s video game privileges for not doing chores).
Reinforcement Discrimination: Learning to respond to a specific situation but not others (e.g., raising your hand in class but not at home).
Generalization: Using a learned behavior in similar situations (e.g., saying "please" and "thank you" at school after learning it at home).
Shaping: Gradually rewarding behaviors that get closer to the desired action (e.g., teaching a dog to fetch by rewarding small steps).
Instinctive Drift: When animals return to natural, instinctive behaviors even if they were trained to do something else (e.g., raccoons trying to rub coins instead of putting them in a bank).
Superstitious Behavior: Doing something based on a mistaken belief that it causes a good outcome (e.g., athletes wearing a "lucky" shirt).
Learned Helplessness: When someone learns they can’t escape negative situations, so they stop trying (e.g., a student giving up after repeatedly failing).
Aversive Consequences: Using unpleasant things to reduce unwanted behavior (e.g., giving reprimands to reduce lateness at work).
Schedules of Reinforcement: Different ways of giving rewards for a behavior:
Continuous Reinforcement: Rewarding every time a behavior happens.
Partial Reinforcement: Rewarding only some of the time. There are four types:
Fixed Ratio: After a set number of behaviors.
Variable Ratio: After an unpredictable number of behaviors.
Fixed Interval: After a set time passes.
Variable Interval: After an unpredictable amount of time.
Social Learning Theory: Learning by watching others and copying their behaviors (e.g., a child learning by watching a sibling).
Vicarious Conditioning: Learning by watching others get rewarded or punished for their behaviors.
Insight Learning: Sudden realization of the solution to a problem (e.g., a chimp figuring out how to use a stick to get food).
Latent Learning: Learning that happens without immediate rewards, but is shown later when needed (e.g., learning the layout of a city by just visiting it daily).
Cognitive Maps: Mental images of our surroundings that help us navigate (e.g., knowing how to get around an airport).