Science, Technology, and Society: Historical Development of Science and Technology
Learning Objectives
Discuss the interactions between Science and Technology (S&T) and society throughout history.
Discuss how scientific and technological developments affect society and the environment.
Identify the paradigm shifts in history.
Articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and technology.
General Concepts
Science is defined as a systematized body of knowledge.
The term originates from the Latin word "Scientia," which means "to know."
Humanity's drive for knowledge derives from an urge to find answers to questions about the world.
The characteristic of being "systematized" is vital to the definition, as it indicates the pursuit follows a process.
The scientific method enables the gathering of new knowledge in a systematic manner.
Ancient Ages: Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is the location where the first recorded civilizations existed.
The region encompasses present-day Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, and Turkey.
In Greek, the name means "between two rivers," referring to the Tigris-Euphrates river system.
Civilizations in this area emerged around .
Key nations in the region included the Sumerian, Babylonian, and Assyrian civilizations.
Sumerian Civilization
Sumer, located in modern-day Iraq, is identified as the earliest known civilization in Mesopotamia.
The inhabitants referred to themselves as the "black-headed people" and called their land "the land of the black-headed people."
They are credited with inventing cuneiform, one of the earliest writing systems, which utilized wedge-shaped scripts inscribed into clay tablets.
They developed a unique number system using a main base of and an auxiliary base of .
Technological advancements included the construction of sailboats for sea travel and the invention of the wheel, initially for pottery and later for transportation in chariots.
Agricultural innovations included irrigation and the construction of high levees (flood banks) to collect water from the Tigris and Euphrates. During summer, they poked holes in these levees to irrigate the land.
They utilized plows for planting.
Identified as the first astronomers, they observed the phases of the moon to develop a lunar calendar.
Babylonian Civilization
The city of Babylon served as the center of Mesopotamian civilization for nearly two millennia.
The name Babylon is derived from "bav-il" or "bav-ilim," meaning the "Gates of the Gods"; its ruins are in present-day Iraq.
Biblical references to Babylon span from the time of Hammurabi in to its downfall in .
In Genesis 10, Noah's son Ham became the father of Cush, who fathered Nimrod, the builder of a kingdom including Babylon.
Genesis 11 describes the Tower of Babel, where Babylonians attempted to build a tower with a top in the heavens, but God disrupted the work by confusing the languages of the workers.
Robert Koldewey, a German archaeologist, directed excavations in Babylon in based on biblical references.
Koldewey excavated the Temple of Etemenanki, a great ziggurat thought to be the inspiration for the Tower of Babel.
Excavations revealed parts of the palaces of King Nebuchadnezzar II, including a basement with rooms featuring stone arch ceilings. This is believed to be the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, a gift for the king's homesick wife, Amytis.
Babylonians adopted the Sumerian number system but added mentions of fractions, square and cube formulas, and the Pythagorean theorem.
They maintained a lunar calendar (one year divided into months, each featuring or days) and invented sundials and water clocks to track time.
Ancient Egypt
Founded in the Nile River valley, which provided rich soil for agriculture.
Egypt was known as "Kemet," meaning "Black Land," due to its dark, rich soil.
Egyptians constructed irrigation canals and further developed the plow. They also created the shadoof, an irrigation tool used to lift water.
Inventions included breath mints, made from pellets of frankincense, myrrh, and cinnamon mixed with honey.
Architecture was highly developed, featuring monuments like the Great Sphinx of Giza, a high white limestone statue with a lion's body and human head.
Pyramids served as tombs for royalty based on the belief that the soul is immortal. Preservation of the body was required for the soul to live again after death, which led to the practice of mummification.
Djoser, a pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty of the Old Kingdom, built the first Step Pyramid in Saqqara, designed by the physician and architect Imhotep.
Later pyramids included those of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure.
Egyptians used papyrus, made from the pith of the papyrus plant, for writing, as well as for mats, baskets, and ropes.
Imhotep authored texts describing over diseases and their associated treatments.
Indus Valley Civilization
Located in present-day Pakistan and Northwest India, this Bronze Age civilization was the largest of the four urban civilizations (Egypt, Mesopotamia, South Asia, and China).
It flourished in the basins of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra rivers.
In the , archaeological ruins of a city called Mohenjo-Daro were unearthed.
Innovations included metallurgy (bronze, tin, copper, and lead) and handicrafts like carnelian products and seal carving.
Features included baked brick houses, clusters of large non-residential buildings, complex drainage systems, and sophisticated water storage.
They developed an accurate weighing system and a writing system containing to characters.
Agricultural practices included growing barley, mustard, peas, and cotton.
Domesticated animals included dogs, cats, cattle, fowls, camels, and buffaloes.
Ancient China
One of the oldest and longest-lasting civilizations.
The name China comes from the Sanskrit "Cina," derived from the Qin ("Chin") Dynasty. Greeks and Romans called it "Seres," meaning "the land where the silk comes from."
Chinese records include the first solar eclipse and observations of the "guest star" supernova that created the Crab Nebula.
The abacus was developed for complex mathematical operations.
Acupuncture was developed to heal and relieve pain by inserting metal needles into skin and tissue.
Significant inventions include paper, invented by Cai Lun in during the Han Dynasty, and porcelain, a ceramic clay pottery that turns crystalline when heated.
The first movable printing press was developed by Bai Sheng during the Song Dynasty.
Silk production (sericulture) using silkworms that feed on mulberry leaves was mastered during the Han Dynasty, leading to the creation of the Silk Road trade network.
Gunpowder was discovered by Taoist alchemists mixing sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate while seeking an immortality potion; it was initially used for fireworks.
Aegean Civilization (Ancient Greece)
The period between and is known as the Greek Dark Ages.
Greece is also known as Hellas or Ellada.
Greek Philosophy is considered a major contribution. Figures like Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates used rational thought to replace unscientific explanations for existence.
In Mathematics, Pythagoras of the Pythagorean Theorem believed numbers were the only objective concept for understanding reality.
Thales of Miletus founded the Milesian School, calculated the height of pyramids, described the position of Ursa Minor, and accurately predicted a solar eclipse on May 28, .
Hippocrates, known as the "Father of Medicine," studied wounded soldiers to determine the correlation between diet, lifestyle, and disease. Doctors today still take the Hippocratic Oath regarding medical ethics.
Engineering advancements included water mills for grinding grain, pioneered by Philo of Perachora, and the construction of aqueducts.
Ctesibius developed the water clock (clepsydra), using falling water and clay vessels to track time.
Archimedes of Syracuse is credited with inventing the odometer to measure travel distance.
Ancient Rome
Began as a small town near the Tiber River and expanded significantly under Augustus Caesar, its first emperor.
Rome borrowed and enriched Greek culture through trade.
Galen, a physician in Pergamum, was the first to diagnose and describe symptoms of diseases.
Roman physicians utilized surgical tools like bone levers, cupping vessels, and the rectal speculum.
Structural innovations included the use of concrete made with volcanic ash for durability. Appius Claudius Caecus built the first Roman aqueduct, Aqua Appia.
Major architectural works include the Colosseum and the Pantheon.
Military technology included range artilleries called ballistas and "Greek fire," a combustible weapon for bombs.
The fall of the Western Roman Empire occurred in , marking the beginning of the Middle Ages or "Dark Ages."
Mesoamerica
A historical cultural region spanning Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador.
The Olmec Civilization was the earliest in Mesoamerica. Other major civilizations included the Maya, Aztec, and Inca.
Maya Civilization
Utilized a writing system called Maya hieroglyphics containing characters.
Maya texts, known as codices, were written on tree bark. Most were burned by Spaniards as pagan, but the Dresden Codex was salvaged, containing astronomical tables and eclipse predictions.
They used two annual cycles: a solar year and a sacred year, together known as the "calendar round."
A separate calendar, the "long count," measured days in sets or cycles.
Their numerical system for calendar dates was based on the number .
Mayan women wove unique tunics called huipiles.
They used rubber (from rubber trees and morning glory plants) for binding books and manufacturing clothes.
The Temple of Kukulkan at Chichen Itza is a famous pyramid dedicated to their feathered serpent deity.
Aztec Civilization
Thrived in Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City), where they built artificial islands called chinampas.
They utilized the Maya calendar and recorded literature in codices, such as the Sun Stone artifact depicting the sun god.
Their language was Nahuatl, which is still spoken today.
Inca Civilization
Known as the Incan Empire, it was the largest Mesoamerican civilization.
Great engineers who built robust bridges and canals.
In medicine, they performed amputation and cranial trepanation (drilling into the skull).
Musical instruments included flutes, drums, horns, and panpipes.
Their official language was Quechua.
Information like census and tax records was kept using Quipu, a system of knotted strings.
The Middle Ages
Also called the Dark Ages, following the fall of the Roman Empire and the invasion of Germanic tribes.
In , Alaric I, king of the Visigoths, invaded Rome and was named Magister Militum (Master of the Soldiers).
Byzantine Empire
The Eastern part of the Roman Empire that remained after the Western collapse, with its capital at Byzantine (renamed Constantinople by Emperor Constantine).
Reached its peak under Emperor Justinian, who reclaimed lands from Germanic tribes.
Inventions included the handheld trebuchet (cheiromangana) and tidal mills, which used the power of rising and falling tides to grind grain.
Islamic Empire
The era spanned from the mid-7th to the mid-13th century.
The Koran encouraged the quest for knowledge and nature observation, emphasizing observation over the Greek style of experimentation.
Improved Chinese papermaking by using starch instead of mulberry bark and preferred pens over brushes.
The House of Wisdom was built in Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate to translate Greek and Syriac texts into Arabic and house researchers in astronomy and alchemy.
Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen), the "Father of Modern Optics," wrote the Book of Optics, devised laws of refraction, and experimented with the dispersion of light.
Abu Ali al-Hussein Ibn Sina (Avicenna) wrote The Canon of Medicine, describing eye anatomy and the contagiousness of meningitis and tuberculosis.
Abu Qasim Khalaf ibn Abbas Al Zahrawi (Al Zahrawi), the "Father of Surgery," wrote Al Tasreef, describing surgical procedures for the eye, ear, and throat.
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi developed Algebra; his book The Compendious Book on Calculations by Completion and Balancing laid the foundations for the field.
Al Biruni calculated the Earth's radius by observing a mountain in Nandana, Pakistan, and proposed the Earth rotates on its axis.
Jibbir ibn Hayyan, the "Father of Chemistry," authored books on alchemy and developed equipment still used today.
Medieval Europe
Charlemagne (Charles the Great) founded the Carolingian Empire with Alcuin of York, revitalizing arts and literature.
Vikings (793-1066 AD) were skilled navigators who used a magnetic sun compass. Their primary weapon was the axe, specifically the two-handed Dane Axe.
The Crusades (Holy Wars) were sanctioned by the Latin Church to slow the spread of Islam. Pope Urban II called for the reclamation of Jerusalem at the Council of Clermont.
Military technology during the Crusades included the crossbow, tuned-up swords, and daggers.
Agricultural improvement came via the three-field system, dividing land into three seasonal plots.
Greek-to-Latin translations of works by Aristotle (Physics and Metaphysics), Euclid (Elements of Geometry), and Claudius Ptolemy (Geography) fueled learning. Translators included Averroes and William of Moerbeke.
Medieval universities, or "Studium Generale," were established, where Christian Scholasticism integrated religious theory with scientific truth.
Major religious orders included the Franciscans () and Dominicans ().
Roger Bacon, in his book Opus Majus, described a repeating cycle of scientific inquiry involving observation, hypothesis formulation, and experimentation.
Nicolas Oresme established the mean speed theorem (theorem of uniform acceleration): an accelerated body covers the same distance in the same time as a body at constant velocity if the constant velocity is half the final speed of the accelerated body ().
John Buridan developed a theory of motion involving a body's natural quality called "impetus."
Additional medieval inventions included spectacles (eyeglasses), spinning wheels, magnets (the first compasses), astrolabes, and clocks.