Psychology: Core Concepts & Figures (Quick Reference)

Transition from Philosophy to Science

Psychology emerges from philosophy, moving toward a scientific approach.
Empiricism: focus on what can be observed and demonstrated; questions of truth must be verifiable.
Early critique: senses can be deceptive; science seeks to measure and study experiences systematically.
Perception vs reality: research shows small but real differences between what is perceived and what is real (neural processing delays, etc.).

Penrose triangle as an example of perceptual illusion; brain attempts to reconcile ambiguous input with prior knowledge.
Helmholtz: measured neural conduction speed; showed a delay between stimulus and perception; helped establish psychology as a science by treating mental phenomena as studyable.
Nerves transmit information from the environment to the brain; psychology begins where sensory data can be systematically studied.

Wilhelm Wundt: founded experimental psychology; promoter of psychology as a laboratory science; advocate of introspection; structuralism (mind’s contents).
Edward B. Titchner (Edward Titchner in lecture): brought structuralism to the United States; studied the mind’s contents under controlled conditions; population often described as typical adults; limitations later recognized.
Margaret Floy Washburn: first American woman to earn a PhD in psychology; contributed to early empirical work.

Structuralism vs. Functionalism: structure of the mind vs. what the mind does.
William James: key figure in functionalism; emphasized studying the mind in terms of its functions and adaptive purposes; promoted psychology in classroom settings; authored influential texts.
Mary Whiton Calkins: student of James; among the early women to assume leadership in the field within the APA context.
G. Stanley Hall: established the first psychology journal; contributed to education and child psychology; helped institutionalize psychology in the US.

APA: American Psychological Association established, fostering professional identity and scholarly exchange.
Shift toward broader applications and populations beyond a narrow, typical-adult male sample.
Functionalism and structuralism spurred diversification into new areas, including comparative and applied psychology.

Structuralism (Wundt, Titchner) and Functionalism (James) as foundational frameworks.
Gestalt psychology: emphasis on wholes and perceptual organization; precursor to cognitive approaches.
Behaviorism: Skinner and Watson; focus on observable behavior and empirical measurement; return to environment and learning processes.
Cognitive psychology: later development emphasizing memory, language, problem solving; growth in sixties.
Applied psychology: applying research to real-world problems (education, industry, clinical practice).
Industrial/Organizational psychology: Hugo Munsterberg; productivity, hiring, and workplace efficiency.
Intelligence testing: Alfred Binet (French); uses in education and placement decisions; groundwork for later IQ testing.
Eugenics and heredity interests: Patel-like ideas on inheritance of intelligence and selective breeding; controversial and ethically problematic.
Carroll/Cattell–Horn theory: influence on intelligence theory and measurement.

Brown v. Board of Education: pivotal civil rights decision; psychology played a role in challenging segregation.
Mamie Phipps Clark and Kenneth Clark: experiments showing segregation harmed self-esteem and educational attainment of Black children; cited in Brown v. Board.
Leta Hollingsworth: research on women, menstruation, and stereotypes in the workplace; helped reduce gender biases.
Evelyn Hooker: studies challenging stereotypes about homosexual men and mental health.

Journals and professional societies (e.g., APA) helped validate and disseminate findings; important for reproducibility and credibility.
Applied psychology as a bridge to real-world problems: education, therapy, workplace, public policy.

Purpose: deepen understanding by evaluating historical figures through a modern hiring lens.
Setup: groups of about 4 students (there are 35 in class); each group reviews candidates and discusses who to hire as the new psychology professor for NJIT.
Candidates in the activity (sample from transcript): Edward Titchner (structuralism founder in the US), B. F. Skinner (behaviorism), Mamie Phipps Clark (civil rights education research).
Task: designate a hiring committee member list and justify selections based on historical contributions to psychology.

Psychology transitions from philosophy to science through empiricism and measurement of perception and mind.
The mind was studied first as a structure (structuralism) and then as a function (functionalism).
The field diversified into many schools (gestalt, behaviorism, cognitive) and expanded into applied areas (IO psychology, clinical psychology, education).
Psychology has had a profound impact on society, including education, civil rights, and public policy.
In-class activities mirror real-world tasks: evaluating historical figures for hiring demonstrates applying science to organizational goals.