CHAPTER ONE: HISTORY

THE LATE BRONZE AGE

  • Context

    • The Late Bronze Age marks a significant transitional period in the Levant, particularly following the end of the Middle Bronze Age, which is evident throughout the Near East.

    • Key events include the fall of the Hyksos, a coalition of Canaanite-speaking groups from Syria-Palestine, from power in Egypt during the first half of the sixteenth century BC.

    • The expulsion of the Hyksos paved the way for the era of native Egyptian rule known as the New Kingdom, characterized by stability and military expansion.

  • Egyptian Military Expansion

    • The Egyptians, alongside Hurrian peoples from the kingdom of Mitanni and Hittites, shaped the political landscape of the Late Bronze Age Levant.

    • Archaeological evidence, including levels of destruction in various Levantine sites, illustrates Egypt’s military incursions into Syria-Palestine post-Hyksos.

    • Tuthmosis III, reigning from 1479 to 1425 BC, is pivotal due to his military campaigns that founded Egypt's western Asiatic empire. His campaigns focused heavily on the northern Akkar coastal plain and surrounding cities, aiming to consolidate power over strategic areas such as the Eleutheros River valley.

    • The Akkar corridor is noted as a vital link between the Mediterranean coast and inland areas of Syria, enhancing trade and military movement.

  • Significance of Phoenician Cities

    • Major Phoenician cities such as Byblos and Arwad were crucial in Tuthmosis III’s military strategy, as they were essential for securing flows of commerce and military logistics into and through the region.

    • The coastal city of Ullasa was captured by Tuthmosis, setting the stage for further military operations along the Phoenician coastline, including visits to Arwad, a notable port city with substantial trade benefits.

BYBLOS: AN EXCEPTIONAL CASE

  • Continuous Occupation

    • Except for Arwad, Byblos is recognized as the only major Phoenician coastal city with a continuous record from the Early Bronze Age to the first millennium BC.

    • Byblos thrived economically during the early second millennium BC (19th to 18th centuries), serving as a vital coastal emporium with trade connections to Egypt, the Aegean, and Mesopotamia.

    • Its commercial success continued into the Late Bronze Age due in part to its timber resources, particularly cedar—an essential material for Egyptian construction and shipbuilding.

  • Export of Cedar Wood

    • Egypt's quest for timber was primarily motivated by its scarcity of large trees. Byblos was particularly known for its vast cedar forests, which were essential for building and religious practices in Egypt.

    • Egyptian records highlight construction in Byblos, showcasing a systematic effort to harvest timber for cedar boat construction, emphasizing the scale and organization of these operations.

THE SOUTHERN PHOENICIAN COASTAL CITIES

  • Geopolitical Division

    • By the mid-14th century BC, the Amarna correspondence indicates that the region was administratively linked to Egypt through three defined districts: Canaan, Apu, and Amurru.

    • Canaan District: Included the southern Phoenician coast from Akko to Beirut.

    • Apu District: Encompassed inland areas of present-day northern Israel and Lebanon.

    • Amurru District: Comprised the coastal plain from Byblos to Arwad, viewed as a northern extension of Canaan by Egyptian authorities.

  • Political Structure

    • Southern cities such as Tyre, Sidon, and Beirut demonstrated considerable wealth, political organization, and autonomy despite their dependence on Egypt's administrative framework.

    • Intense commercial rivalry emerged among these cities, signifying their interconnected economic activities.

    • Byblos's prominence was noted in the Amarna letters, affirming its status with over seventy communications with the Egyptian court, revealing its crucial role in political and commercial exchanges.

  • Trade and Economic Activities

    • Trade involving copper and tin was vital in the late Bronze Age economy. The correspondence highlighted the significance of materials like copper sourced from the Lebanese region, especially Byblos, which had active bronze production centers.

    • Ugarit was another key player, with strong ties to these emerging coastal trade networks, showcasing complex interregional trade dynamics.

THE PHOENICIAN CITIES AND THE LATE BRONZE AGE COPPER TRADE

  • Copper Trade Dynamics

    • The period marked a spike in copper imports into Egypt, primarily from Cyprus, alongside contributions from the coastal Phoenician cities.

    • Byblos emerged as a terminal for lucrative tin and lapis lazuli trade, with established routes to the Levant, further bolstered by Egypt's territorial control over trade corridors.

  • Archaeological Evidence

    • The Ulu Burun shipwreck from the late 14th or early 13th century BC further underscores Phoenician involvement, with its cargo illustrating extensive trading networks spanning the eastern Mediterranean.

THE PHOENICIANS AND THE LATE BRONZE AGE CEDAR TRADE

  • Growth of the Cedar Trade

    • As the Egyptian economy flourished under Amenhotep III, the demand for timber surged, leading to increased trade with the Phoenician cities.

    • Cedar wood became central to Egyptian shipbuilding and funerary practices, providing significant economic gains for Phoenician artisans and merchants.

POST-AMARNA AND RAMESSIDE PERIODS

  • Shift in Power Dynamics

    • The late Eighteenth Dynasty witnessed a shift away from Egyptian control towards Hittite influence, particularly over the northern Syrian coast.

    • Even so, during Seti I’s reign, Egyptian authority over the southern Phoenician region was quickly reasserted, reinforcing economic interests in the area's trade networks.

  • Trade Expansion Under Ramesses II

    • The period characterized by Ramesses II's reign (1290-1224 BC) marked prosperity and an expansion of trade due to a stabilized temple economy.

    • Egyptian expansion projects flourishing in Memphis subsequently facilitated enhanced trade with Ugarit and Phoenician ports, indicating active Levantine trade exchanges.

CYPRUS AND THIRTEENTH CENTURY TRADE

  • Decline of Cypriot Imports

    • The thirteenth century saw reduced Cypriot imports in Phoenician coastal cities, indicating a downturn in bilateral trade. However, evidence suggests a surge in copper production and trade activities in Cyprus during this era.

  • Emergence of New Trade Patterns

    • Analysis reveals that the thick presence of Mycenaean pottery in the Levant could likely be attributed to Cypriot trading networks rather than direct Mycenaean activity, revealing the intertwining of trade relationships.

TRADE WITH UGARIT AND MESOPOTAMIA

  • Ugarit's Commercial Rivalry

    • Ugarit’s location and extensive trade relationships with the Phoenician ports of Byblos and Arwad illustrate an essential commercial rivalry, enriched by access to vital resources.

    • Hittite control over trade routes during the thirteenth century ultimately benefited both Ugarit and Phoenician cities, demonstrating the interconnected economies of the region.

OVERVIEW OF PHOENICIAN ECONOMICS IN THE LATE BRONZE AGE

  • Economic Landscape

    • The Phoenician coastal cities thrived in the Late Bronze Age, characterized by diversified economies, engaging in timber, metals, textiles, and luxury goods.

    • The cities operated distinctly, with commercial influences: Arwad focused on the north, while Tyre oriented its trade southward to Egypt.

    • The archaeological record demonstrates rich craft industries alongside extensive trade networks with Mesopotamia and the broader eastern Mediterranean.