Critial thinking

Part 1: Key Terms Glossary

Term	Definition
Claim (Statement)	An assertion that something is or is not the case; it must be either true or false.
Argument	A set of statements where some (premises) are intended to support another (conclusion).
Premise	A statement given in support of a conclusion.
Conclusion	The statement that the premises are intended to support.
Deduction	An argument intended to provide logically conclusive support for its conclusion.
Induction	An argument intended to provide probable (not certain) support for its conclusion.
Valid	A deductive argument where, if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
Sound	A deductive argument that is valid AND has actually true premises.
Strong/Weak	Terms for inductive arguments based on how likely the premises make the conclusion.
Availability Error	Relying on evidence because it is vivid or memorable rather than because it is reliable.
Confirmation Bias	The tendency to seek out or notice only information that confirms our existing beliefs.
Dunning-Kruger	A bias where people with low ability at a task overestimate their own competence.
Homophily	The tendency to associate with people who are similar to us (the "echo chamber" effect).

Part 2: Critical Thinking Fundamentals

Defining Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is the systematic evaluation or formulation of beliefs, or statements, by rational standards. It’s not just "thinking a lot"; it’s thinking about how you think to minimize error.

Psychological Obstacles

The biggest hurdles usually involve:

Self-Centered Thinking: Placing your own interests/prestige above the truth.
Groupthink/Peer Pressure: Conforming to a group even when evidence suggests otherwise.
Cognitive Biases: Like the Availability Error or Confirmation Bias mentioned above.

Claims vs. Non-Claims

Claim: "The moon is made of cheese." (Even if false, it’s a claim because it asserts a "fact").
Non-Claim: "Wow!" (Exclamation), "Pass the salt." (Command), "What time is it?" (Question). None of these can be "true" or "false."

Part 3: Identifying & Analyzing Arguments

Argument vs. Non-Argument

An argument requires an inferential claim (a "since this, then that" relationship).

Non-Arguments: Descriptions (just saying what happened), Stories (narrative flow), and Explanations (explaining why something happened, rather than proving that it happened).

Indicator Words

Premise Indicators: Because, since, given that, for, as shown by.
Conclusion Indicators: Therefore, thus, so, hence, consequently, it follows that.

Implied (Unstated) Premises or Conclusions

Sometimes an argument is missing a piece because the speaker thinks it's "obvious."

Example: "Socrates is a man, so he is mortal."
Unstated Premise: "All men are mortal."

Part 4: Deduction vs. Induction

Deductive: Aiming for certainty. If the structure is correct, it is Valid. If it's valid and the facts are true, it's Sound.
Inductive: Aiming for probability. If the evidence makes the conclusion likely, it is Strong. If not, it is Weak.

Part 5: Information & Media Literacy

Expert Authority

An expert is someone with specialized knowledge in a particular field. Factors include:

Education/Training from reputable institutions.
Experience in the field.
Reputation among peers.
Professional Accomplishments.

Appeal to Inappropriate Authority: Citing someone who is an expert in one field (e.g., a famous actor) as an authority on another (e.g., climate science).

Media & Advertising

Biased Reporting vs. Fake News: Biased reporting leans one way but uses facts; Fake news is intentionally fabricated to deceive.
Lateral Reading: Instead of staying on one site to "check" its credibility, you open new tabs to see what otherreliable sources say about that site or claim.
Advertising Tactics:
- Identification: Making you want to be like the person in the ad.
- Slogans: Short, catchy phrases that bypass critical thought.
- Weasel Words: Words like "helps," "virtually," or "up to" that make a claim sound stronger than it actually is.