Late Roman Republic: Key Points

Sulla’s Dictatorship $(82 ext{–}78 ext{ BCE})$

• Won civil war; became dictator.

• Goals: restore senatorial power, curb tribunes (limited veto, blocked higher office).

• Doubled Senate to $600$ members.

Post-Sulla Military Crises

• External & internal threats (Mithridates VI, Spanish revolts, Spartacus slave revolt).

• Success of commanders (Pompey, Crassus, Caesar) showed armies = political power.

Pompey & Crassus

• Put down Spartacus revolt; elected consuls $(70 ext{ BCE})$.

• Repealed Sullan limits on tribunes.

First Triumvirate $(60 ext{ BCE})$

• Informal power pact: Pompey, Crassus, Julius Caesar.

• Caesar conquered Gaul $(58 ext{–}50 ext{ BCE})$, gaining wealth/army.

• Crassus killed $(53 ext{ BCE})$ ➔ balance collapsed.

• Pompey allied with Senate; Julia (Caesar’s daughter) died.

Civil War: Caesar vs. Pompey $(49 ext{–}45 ext{ BCE})$

• Caesar crossed Rubicon $(49 ext{ BCE})$ ⇒ war.

• Pompey defeated at Pharsalus $(48 ext{ BCE})$; murdered in Egypt.

• Caesar backed Cleopatra.

Caesar’s Dictatorship & Assassination

• Enlarged Senate to $900$; established $40+$ colonies (Romanization).

• Sought perpetual dictatorship ⇒ assassinated $15 ext{ March }44 ext{ BCE}$.

Second Triumvirate $(43 ext{ BCE})$

• Members: Mark Antony, Octavian, Lepidus.

• Lepidus sidelined; rivalry narrowed to Antony vs. Octavian.

Antony, Cleopatra, and Actium $(31 ext{ BCE})$

• Octavian portrayed Antony as Cleopatra’s tool.

• Naval battle of Actium: Octavian won; Antony & Cleopatra committed suicide.

• Egypt annexed.

Rise of Augustus (Octavian)

• Senate granted title “August