Turmoil in China: 19th Century

China's Historical Context

China boasts a history spanning thousands of years, marked by consistent territorial expansion under various imperial dynasties. Expansion occurred from early societies near the Yangzi and Yellow Rivers to roughly modern borders. While China primarily focused on internal development, it occasionally had to defend against invaders, particularly pastoral nomads from the Eurasian Steppe.

Limited Engagement with the Outside World

China largely remained self-contained, showing little interest in engaging with the outside world beyond trade. Expansion into Korea and Annam (modern Vietnam) was attempted, but the primary focus remained internal. Although never truly "conquered," the Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368), ruled by Mongols, represented a period of foreign influence. This dynasty collapsed following the Black Death.

The Qing Dynasty and Isolation

The Ming Dynasty succeeded the Yuan Dynasty but fell partly due to the Little Ice Age. The Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) was the last imperial dynasty, also foreign-ruled by the Manchu. This minority oversaw a tripling of the population and western expansion, while the populace remained overwhelmingly Han Chinese.

China's military development diverged from Western Europe's path due to a lack of perceived need and a disinterest in adopting foreign methods. Despite inventing gunpowder, the Chinese deemed it unnecessary. Significant isolation was maintained, aided by the Pacific Ocean, Himalaya Mountains, and Gobi Desert. However, this isolation ended in the 19th century as Western powers, notably Great Britain, sought access to Chinese markets.

Opium Wars: Trade Imbalance and Conflict

The British East India Company engaged in trade with China, initially exchanging silver for tea. Later, Indian cotton was used, but opium, an addictive drug from Indian poppies, became the most lucrative commodity.

The Qing Dynasty's inability to tax or regulate the illegal opium trade led to a trade imbalance, widespread addiction, and social unrest stemming from economic and social problems caused by the drug's prevalence.

In 1838, the Daoguang Emperor sent Lin Zexu to negotiate with the British, appealing directly to Queen Victoria to end the destructive drug trade, referencing China's size and population. However, the British merchants and government were unresponsive. Armed ships attacked Canton, and British troops, with artillery and modern firearms, defeated the Chinese, who were mainly equipped with edged weapons and older guns, resulting in approximately 20,000 Chinese deaths compared to a few hundred British in the First Opium War. The British victory led to the Treaty of Nanjing.

Treaty of Nanjing and Semi-Imperialism

The Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, an "unequal treaty" enforced through "gunboat diplomacy," granted Britain Hong Kong (which remained under British control until 1994). British traders gained unrestricted trade rights in five coastal cities. The Qing were forced to reimburse the British for the costs of the war, and British subjects gained the right to be tried in British courts.

Despite these concessions, China did not become a full British colony but was subjected to semi-imperialism. This meant the British controlled trade terms, favoring Great Britain, but did not settle or govern Chinese territory beyond Hong Kong.

Second Opium War and Further Concessions

The treaty contained a 12-year renegotiation clause. In 1856, Britain, seeking more favorable terms, initiated the Second Opium War (1856-1860), supported by France, Russia, and the United States, despite the Sepoy Rebellion at home. Though some in British Parliament objected, Lord Palmerston's Tories prevailed.

The Treaties of Tianjin in 1858 marked the end of the first phase of the war, granting Britain, France, Russia, and the U.S. the right to establish diplomatic legations in Beijing and opening eleven more ports to Western trade. Foreign vessels were allowed free navigation on the Yangtze River, and foreigners gained the right to travel within China.

China was also required to pay an indemnity of four million taels of silver to Britain and two million to France. The Treaty of Aigun (1858) with Russia revised the Chinese-Russian border, granting Russia the left bank of the Amur River. The Convention of Peking in 1860 gave Russia control over a non-freezing area on the Pacific coast, leading to the founding of Vladivostok in 1860.

Taiping Rebellion: Internal Conflict

Amidst conflicts with European powers, the Qing Dynasty faced the Taiping Rebellion, led by Hong Xiuquan (1813-1864). Failing the civil service exam, Hong experienced visions, claiming to be the younger brother of Jesus Christ. He preached against Confucianism, alcohol, opium, and traditional Chinese culture.

Hong's egalitarian message, promising equal redistribution of wealth and rights for women, attracted followers from the margins of society to his Taiping ("Great Peace") movement. In 1850, after Qing leaders attempted to arrest Hong, his followers revolted, capturing Nanjing and massacring Manchus. Qing leaders, Han elites, and foreign mercenary forces united to suppress the Taipings.

The Taiping Rebellion lasted approximately ten years resulting in possibly 20 million deaths. The rebeliion failed, and Hong died. The US Civil War occurred around the same time, claiming roughly 700,000 lives.

Boxer Uprising: Anti-Foreign Sentiment

The Boxer Uprising (1899-1900), led by the "Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists" (the "Boxers"), was a peasant rebellion against foreign presence, especially Christianity and missionaries. Slogans included “Support the Qing, destroy the foreign”. The Boxers believed they were called by Chinese gods and were impervious to bullets. The Red Lanterns were the Boxers' large female support contingent.

The Qing government, led by Empress Dowager Cixi, initially hesitated but ultimately supported the Boxers when foreign powers took action.

Eight-Nation Alliance and Boxer Protocol

The Eight-Nation Alliance, composed of Japan, Russia, Great Britain, the United States, Italy, Germany, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, crushed the Boxer Uprising. The Boxer Protocol forced reparations on the Qing government and authorized foreign troops in Beijing. Empress Dowager Cixi then adopted pro-Western reforms, possibly aiming for a constitutional monarchy.

Transition from Empire to Nation

After decades of struggle under Qing leadership against rebellion and foreign interference, the dynasty weakened. Sun Yat-Sen, educated in British Hong Kong, advocated replacing the Qing with a Han Chinese republican government, marking the rise of Chinese nationalism. In 1911, a rebellion in Wuchang provided an opportunity for Sun and the nationalists. The people did not rally to the Qing, and China's dynastic system ended.

Nationalist vs. Communist

In the following decades, Nationalist and Communist Chinese factions competed for control. By 1933, both had to contend with Japanese invasions. After fighting Japan for over a decade, the Communists prevailed in 1948. China has been a one-party communist state since 1948. Chiang Kai-Shek (Nationalist leader of war torn China, 1928-1948), Mao Zedong (communist dictator of China from 1948-1976).