phonetics midterm

1. Introduction to terms & concepts

   1. Major branches of phonetics

1. Articulation: How sounds are produced within the anatomy

2. Acoustics: Sound waves of sounds

3. Auditory: Perception of sounds. 

2. Phonèmes & allophones

1. Phonemes: Speech sounds and the smallest unit of sound that can differentiate between meaningful units. 

2. Allophone: Variations of a phoneme that differs in production and sometimes sound but doesn’t change meaning of the words. Like /l/ is produced in lip and full. The /l/ is produced differently but it doesn’t change the meaning of either word. 

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3. Phonetics vs. phonology, phonotactic constraints

• Phonetics: The branch of linguistics that studies speech sounds. 

• Phonology: The study of the structure and functions of sounds within a language

• Phonotactic Constraints: Rules that govern the possible sound combinations in a given language.

4. Morphemes

• Morpheme: The smallest unit of language that carries semantic meaning 

  • Free Morpheme: Can be alone. (cat, dog etc)

  • Bound morpheme: Needs to be attached to a free morpheme to create meaning.

  • Inflectional morphemes: (bound) grammatical endings (like plurality)

  • Derivational morphemes: (bound) changes whole meaning (like from noun to verb)

5. Graphemes & allographs

• Grapheme: individual units in the writing system of a language (Ex: a, b, c, d. English has 26 graphemes)

• Allographs: Any one letter or combination of letters that represent a particular phoneme. (ex: /f/ sound in fish, phoneme , muffin)

• Phonemes: Smallest unit of sound that can differentiate between meaningful units in a language (Speech Sounds, not spellings. Ex: cat - cut)

2. Language Variation

   1. Macro- and Micro-cultures

• Macro-cultures: The larger culture… national (or international) cultural traits shared in a general way… crosses local boundaries. 

• Micro-cultures: The smaller culture… patterns of shared behaviour and ideas particular to localized regions or particular groups (an individual can identity with many microcultures at once) 

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2. Dialects & Idiolects

• Dialect: Language variations… shared by a speech community 

• Idiolect: Shared by an Individual language rules (only one person) 

3. Aspects of dialect

1. Phonological differences → sound differences (accents)

2. Semantic differences → different meanings/ names for different things  (ex: chips (us) vs crisps (uk))

3. Morpho-syntactic differences → grammar (ex: you and you all)

4. Pragmatic differences → differences in social uses (ex: proxemics within greeting) 

4. Types of dialects

1. Social dialects: varies by social groups

2. Regional dialects: varies by regions

3. Speakers influenced by other languages

5. ASHA’s position on speech differences vs. disorders

• Speech differences are NOTTT disorders!!! 

• But if one would like they can go to speech therapy for elective services (accent modification).

3. Systems of Speech Production

   1. Respiratory system 

1. Major structures

1. Trachea 

2. Thorax

3. Associated muscles 

4. Lungs 

5. Abdomen muscles

6. Diaphragm 

2. Basic functions

• Provides airflow for speech production 

• Respiration

• Inspiration (muscles: diaphragm, external intercostal, intercartilaginous internal intercostal, scalene muscles, sternocleidomastoid/accessory muscles 

• Expiration (muscles: Interosseous internal intercostals, abdominal muscles)

• Checking action: the “break” in airflow mid speaking… breath control… controlled release of air pressure from the lungs by engaging the muscles of inhalation (external intercostal muscles and diaphragm) 

3. Boyle’s law and respiration

• Boyle’s Law: Inverse relationship between volume and pressure in a space (increased volume/space = decreased pressure & decreased volume/space = increased pressure) 

• Inhalation: Increased airflow/ volume causes the thoracic cavity/ intercostal muscles to expand, scalene triangle/ accessory muscles help to slightly push ribs up, lungs expand, diaphragm contacts downward (decrease in pressure due to the more volume/space) 

• Exhalation: Decreased airflow/volume causes the thoracic cavity/intercostal muscles to contract, lungs contract, diaphragm expands back upward (increase in pressure due to the less volume/ space).

4. Tidal breathing vs. speech breathing

• Tidal breathing: regular breathing, active inspiration, passive expiration… 40/60 division for inhalation/ exhalation 

• Speech breathing: During speech, active deeper inspiration  (high volume), active  longer expiration 

2. Laryngeal/phonatory system

   1. Major structures (cartilages & bones)

• Hyoid bone: U shaped bone in the front… only bone that doesn’t connect and articulate with any other bone (alone) (delicate)

• Cricoid Cartilage: Ring shaped bone located below the thyroid above the trachea (front)... provides structural support to keep the airway open… it is larger in the back.

• Thyroid Cartilage: Larges laryngeal cartilage forming the Adam’s apple… shield shaped and sits above the cricoid… protects vocal cords and provides attachment points for muscles involved in speech

• Arytenoid Cartilage: 2 on each side… pyramid shaped cartilage located on the superior surface of the cricoid… essential for vocal cord movement/phonation as they control the opening and closing, tension and position of them…

• Corniculate Cartilage: Small horn shaped cartilage located on top of the arytenoid cartilages… helps with movement and stability of the arytenoid… minor role in phonation and airway protection. 

• Epiglottic Cartilage: Leaf shaped elastic cartilage that forms the epiglottis… flap that covers laryngeal opening during swallowing which prevents food and liquids from entering the trachea and vocal tract. 

2. Vocal fold function

• Helps to phonate/phonation (sound/speech creation) 

• opens wide (abduction) when breathing regular 

• closes when phonating or pretty much creating sounds (adduction)

3. Phonation & the Bernoulli effect

• States that the increased airflow will result in decreased air pressure 

• Within phonation, your vocal folds will open when there is an increased amount of airflow coming from the lungs but when they closed and open again there is a decrease in pressure. 

4. Types of phonation: 

1. Modal : Everyday… VF are fully adducted and sound passes through to make speech

2. Whisper: VF extra tension and held slightly apart… tensed and rigid but held slightly apart  

3. Breathy: VF are tensed appropriately for vibration but not fully adducted.

4. Falsetto: VF are extremely tense and held in such a way that a small area can vibrate… results in high fundamental frequency

5. Vocal fry/glottal fry: VF are loose (lax) but fully adducted… results in a low fundamental frequency and irregular vibration 

3. Supralaryngeal system

   1. Source-filter theory: 

                                  - multiple components that make speech sounds… there has to be source & filter

                  - Source (where? vocal folds and lungs/ creation of the vocals tones) and filter  (articulators and open spaces of the supralaryngeal system) 

2. Cavities & resonance (PONA) (filters!!)

• Pharyngeal cavity: Space between larynx and oral and nasal cavities 

• Oral cavity: Space between pharynx and lips 

• Nasal cavity: Space between pharynx and nostrils 

• Articulators: (sound creators) velum, jaw, tongue and lips

3. Mobile & Fixed Articulators 

• Mobile (moves): Mandible (jaw), lips, velum (soft palate), tongue, pharyngeal cavity 

• Fixed (stays put): Teeth, hard palate, alveolar ridge 

• Oral sounds: velum is raised 

• Nasal sounds: velum is lowered (resting position)

4. Articulatory function

• Assists in fully creating the speech and vocal sounds within the anatomical features 

4. Classifying Speech Sounds*

   1. Vowels vs. Consonants

1. Vowels: 

• No significant constriction in vocal tract

• All voiced (vibration of the vocal folds)

• Continuous 

• Acoustically more intense 

• Can function as a syllable nuclei

2. Consonants:

• Significant constriction in vocal tract

• Can be either voiced or unvoiced (no vibration of the vocal folds)

• Not continuous 

• Acoustically less intense 

• Can only form a syllable nuclei in specific cases 

2. Consonant Classification – place, manner, & voicing (PMV)

1. Place: Where is the phonation happening? 

• Bilabial: both lips

• Labiodental: lips and teeth

• Interdental: in between 

• Alveolar: ridge behind teeth

• Palatal: hard palate

• Velar: soft palate, resonance 

• Glottal: air space between vocal folds 

2. Manner: How is the constriction happening? 

• Stop: Complete constriction of the vocal tract for a few seconds before air comes out in one brief burst. Ex: /p/

• Nasal: Oral cavity completely constricted but airflow continues to flow through the nasal cavity. Ex: /m/, /n/

• Fricative: Almost fully constricted. Tiny opening between passive and active articulators while forcing air through. Ex: /f/, /v/ 

• Affricate: Vocal tract constricted at first and then opens slightly. Air goes through small space and gives us friction at the end. Ex: /ch/

• Glide: Begins with constriction but moves into a more open position. Ex: /yuh/ 

• Liquid

• Lateral: Tongue closes at alveolar ridge. Ex: /L/

• Rhotic: Constants where the tongue is hardly touching anything. Ex: /R/

3. Voicing: Whether phonation is taking place during the sound 

• Voiced: vibration of vocal folds

• Voiceless: no vibration of vocal folds

3. Vowel Classification – height, advancement, tenseness, & lip rounding (HATR)

• Height: How high is the tongue to the palate? Vertical position of the tongue body

1. High 

2. Mid-high 

3. Mid 

4. Mid-low 

5. Low

• Advancement: Highest point of the tongue to the front of the oral cavity… horizontal position of the tongue body 

1. Front 

2. Central 

3. Back  

• Tenseness: Degree of muscle activity involved in vocal articulation 

1. Tense 

2. Lax

• Lip rounding: Rounding, protrusion, retraction, spreading, eversion and narrowing of the lips 

1. Rounded 

2. Unrounded