Roman Empire Summary

Roman Expansion Problems

  • Increased population, culture shock with Greek slaves

  • Newly acquired lands went to wealthy landowners

  • Government offices became expensive, benefiting rich families

  • Peasant farmers displaced, moved to cities

  • Government failed to address these problems

Decline of the Roman Republic

  • Leaders became too powerful; generals desired to fix Rome but became power-hungry

  • Senators killed leaders who challenged them

  • Examples: Gracchi, Marius, Sulla, Julius Caesar, Augustus Caesar

  • Factors: expansion, class divisions, power of generals, Senate's passiveness

  • Marius: Paid soldiers, changed loyalty

The Gracchi

  • Tribunes:

    • Tiberius: 133 BC

    • Gaius: 122-121 BC

  • Supported lower class:

    • Tiberius: Land reform

    • Gaius: Supported soldiers in Sicily

  • Tiberius's popularity: Land reform, Punic Wars experience

  • Senate killed Tiberius, normalizing political assassination

  • Reforms: Land reforms, grain laws, colonial expansion

  • Impact: Challenged Senate's power, normalized political killings, set stage for Rome's collapse

Generals and Councils

  • Marius:

    • Allowed landless people to join the military and paid them

    • Resulted in loyalty shift to generals and military gain of power

  • Sulla:

    • Marched on Rome in 82 BC, became dictator without limit

    • Gave veto power to the senate over the plebians

    • Gave soldiers land, extended legal borders

    • Conflicts with Marius

    • Mithridatic Wars: 88 BC

  • Pompey:

    • Allied with Sulla, gave power to people

    • Made foreign policy decisions for the Republic

    • Brought military to the first triumvirate

  • Crassus:

    • Made money from setting fires and charging to put them out

    • Defended Spartacus in the slave revolt

    • Part of the 1st triumvirate with Julius Caesar

  • Cicero:

    • Resisted Julius Caesar, known for speeches

    • Shamed Cataline publicly

  • Julius Caesar:

    • Assassinated in 44 BC by the Senate due to fears of becoming emperor

    • Popular due to public transcripts, land reform, and military leadership

    • Crossed the Rubicon River, signifying a point of no return and civil war

First Triumvirate

  • Pompey, Crassus, Julius Caesar

  • Sought absolute power using each other's positions

Second Triumvirate

  • Octavian: Established legitimacy connected to Julius Caesar

  • Marc Antony: Killed off Caesar's killers

  • Marcus Lepidus: Gained land but was forced into retirement

Pax Romana

  • 27 BC - 180 AD

  • Relative peace & prosperity

  • No sea pirates, better trade, common languages, gospel spread (roads)

Jewish Context

  • Daniel's Prophecies:

    • Daniel 2: Statue of different metals

    • Daniel 7: Four beasts

    • Daniel 9: Timing of the Messiah after 69 weeks

  • Daniel 9: Bear represents Medo-Persia

  • Timeline:

    • Messiah comes after 69 weeks following the decree to rebuild the temple

  • Empires/Metals:

    • Gold- Babylon: lion

    • Silver- Medo Persia: bear

    • Bronze- Greece: leopard

    • Iron-Rome: fierce beast

    • Iron and Clay- divided kingdoms: the horns of the beast

    • Stone- the kingdom of God

  • Leopard with 4 heads: Alexander's 4 successors

  • Lion with eagle parts: A strong earthly kingdom

  • Madden's Thesis: Rome is a 'benevolent' dictator

  • 64 AD: Fire in Rome, Christians blamed, persecution by Nero

  • 66 AD: Jewish revolt

  • 70 AD: Siege of Jerusalem

  • Significance of Second Temple's destruction:

    • Roman Perspective: Display of imperial power

    • Hebrews Perspective: End of Jewish sacrificial practices, separation of Judaism from Christianity

  • Hebrews' warning: Don't return to Jerusalem and the Temple

Emperors

  • Succession Issues: Emperors favoring their people, unstable situations

  • Diocletian's plan failed quickly

  • Christian Persecution:

    • Threatened Roman religion

    • Nero: Blamed Christians for fire in 64 AD

    • Domitian: Continued persecution

Status of Christianity

  • Nero: Initial persecution

  • Diocletian: Hated and executed Christians

  • Constantine: Legalized Christianity, Edict of Milan

Augustus Principate

  • 27 BC - 14 AD

  • Claimed divine status but avoided being called a king

  • Helped with corruption, security, improved moral character, stabilized the government

Julio-Claudian

  • 14 AD - 68 AD

  • Emperors:

    • Tiberius: Skilled, disliked by senators

    • Caligula: Insane, claimed divinity

    • Claudius: Good emperor, granted citizenship

    • Nero: Initially good, then insane, persecuted Christians

  • Christians viewed as a problem, blamed for the fire

Year of the Four Emperors

  • Instability in succession

  • Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian

Flavian Emperors

  • 70 AD: Siege of Jerusalem

    • Rome: Demonstration of imperial strength

    • Hebrews: End of sacrificial worship

  • Titus built the Coliseum

  • Domitian declared himself DominusetdeusDominus et deus (Lord and god), persecuted Christians

Five Good Emperors

  • Nerva: Elected, adopted Trajan

  • Trajan: Welfare program, expanded borders, Trajan's Column

  • Hadrian: Consolidated empire, built walls

  • Antoninus Pius: Maintained success, avoided campaigns

  • Marcus Aurelius: Philosopher king, military campaigns

  • Commodus: Crazy, paranoid

Year of the Five Emperors

  • Commodus declared himself a god, assassinated in 192 AD

Crisis of the Third Century

  • Cause: Free citizenship, devalued coins

  • Aurelian: United empire through military and religion (dominus et deus), new coins

Diocletian

  • Separated governor roles, dominus et deus, tetrarchy

  • Tetrarchy: Augustus elects Caesar, Caesar marries Augustus’ daughter - Succession plan

  • Persecuted Christians after consulting Oracle at Didyma

Rise of Constantine

  • Problems with succession: Emperors wanted their own men

  • Council of Caruthum: Sorted out tetrarchy members

  • Civil wars: Constantine attacked Italy, Battle of Milvian Bridge (vision), Constantine wins

  • Constantine became Christian, legalized Christianity (Edict of Milan)

Council of Nicaea

  • 325 AD

  • Unified understanding of Jesus and defined Christian doctrine

Primary Sources

  • Pliny, Letter to the Emperor Trajan

  • Constantine's Vision

  • Edict of Milan (Propaganda)

  • Monuments: Trajan’s column, statues, arches

  • Comet: Octavian declaring himself legitimate

  • Coins: Messages of divine status

  • Nero blaming Christians (negative propaganda)

Extras

  • 313 AD: Edict of Milan

  • 325 AD: Council of Nicaea