U2 review

2.1 silk roads

- demand for luxury goods increased in europe and africa

- textiles and porcelain on silk road

- caravans on silk road

- paper money created to manage trade in china

- crusades helped expand networks

- china wanted europes gold and silver

- europeans struggled to find a route around the cape of good hope

- golden age of silk roads ended after han and roman empire fell

- arab merchants from abbasid empire revived the silk roads

- china importing luxury goods led to second golden age

- mongol had the biggest impact on trade

- mongols led to unification and respected merchants and enforced laws

- mongols fixed roads and punished bandits and made travel safer

- those who survived mongols benefited from the trade routes revival

- china created the compass and rudder and junk during han dynasty

- compartments in the junk make sinking less likely

- effects of stable silk roads was oasis that developed and commercial innovations that increased trade

- oases were arid lands that stretched over the silk roads and became thriving centers of trade [kashgar is an example]

- travelers depend on kashgar for water and food
- kashgar was a buddhist city but became a center of islamic scholarship

- samarkand was a center of cultural exchange as well as trade [remains show diverse religions]

- caravanserai were inns in large trading cities where people could rest w their animals and sometimes trade in their animals

- china developed flying cash, baking houses, bill of exchange, etc.

- the crusades sparked interest in europe for luxury asian goods

- an alliance called the hanseatic league controlled trade in the north and baltic sea 

- those in the hanseatic league drove out pirates and monpolized trading goods

- the league ended after national government were strong to protect merchants

2.2 mongol in modern world 

- mongols traveled eurasia and caused chaos and destruction

- most people knew the mongols for their atrocities

- mongols were many clans of pastoral nomads

- they expected both men and women to be skilled w animals, hunting and warfare

- mongol leader was temujin, aka genghis khan

- he mainly focused on building power

- he cared more about merit than family and sometimes even killed family

- anyone who resisted khan was killed

- some leaders surrendered before attack from hearing stories about khan

- mongol soldiers were skilled w a short bow and had a messenger force

- they often deployed an army smaller than the enemy 

- if enemy refused to surrender, he killed the aristocrats but skilled workers were spared

- when captured china and persia, they had engineers create siege weapons

- khan created a pony express but with oral messages

- the Pax Mongolia was a period of peace

- capital of mongol empire was Karakorum

- he established a policy of religious tolerance

- khans soldiers protected the silk roads

- the uyghur alphabet was adopted to represent mongolian language which i still used today even though the plan to unify the empire failed

- Batu was khans oldest grandson, had an army called the golden horde who marched into russia, to conquer and pay tribute

- kiev was destroyed

- sympathy for mongols religious toleration was gone after w. europe saw them conquer the christian region of russia

- batu wanted to conquer italy and austria but wasnt able to 

- after death of successor, batu lost interest in conquering europe

- mongols didnt move into russia as long as they received tribute from them

- moscow in russia collected more tributes to build an army to resist the mongols

- they defeated the golden horde

- crimean tartars werent defeated until way after

- russia became more centralized and unified after this

- hulegu is khans other grandson who took charge of southwest region

- hulegu led the mongols into the abbasid terioties

- the mongols destroyed bagdhad and killed the caliphate [leader]

- they were defeated from an alliance w muslim maluks and christian crusaders in palestine

- muslims and christian saw the mongols as a threat

- hulegus kingdom was the Il-khanate where persians were rulers

- this arrangement resulted in max tax collection

- the khanate became muslim

- after the conversion, they supported the massacres of christians and jews

- another grandson was kublai khan who attempted to conquer china 

- kublai established the yuan dynasty and built the capital of dadu

- he was religiously tolerant

- mongol women led independent lives than other cultures and they raised children and animals and rode horses, they could remarry after widowed and could initiate a divorce

- the chinese were eventually alienated as foreigners were hired rather than natives

- mongols stayed away from chinese and didnt want non-mongols to speak mongolian

- yuan dynasty failed to conquer many countries and islands

- the white lotus society planned an end to the yuan dynasty

- a buddhist monk led the revolt, overthrew yuan, and founded ming dynasty

- the mongol defeat led to the shrinking of empire 

- central asian territories were conquered by tamerlane

2.3 indian ocean

• hadith saying “seek ye knowledge, even to china” (9th century) encouraged muslims to travel and learn

• dar al-islam connected societies from north africa to south asia, sometimes called the world’s first global empire

• arab merchants traveled to south asia even before islam expanded

• muslim merchants + sailing technology + environmental knowledge transformed indian ocean into an economic hotspot in the postclassical era

• south asia’s central location in indian ocean gave it enormous trade benefits

• indian ocean trade existed as early as 200 bce but expanded with spread of islam

• muslim persians and arabs were dominant seafarers, transporting goods across the indian ocean

• major west indian cities: calicut, cambay became trade hubs due to east africa and southwest asia merchants

• calicut especially known for spices from southern india

• foreign merchants from arabia and china met in calicut to exchange goods from west and east

• local rulers welcomed muslim and chinese merchants for wealth and prominence

• india: high quality cotton fabrics, woven carpets, high-carbon steel (for knives and swords), tanned leather, artisan stonework, pepper from southern coastal cities

• malaysia + indonesia: spice islands exporting nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, cardamom

• swahili coast cities (mombasa, mogadishu, sofala): exported slaves, ivory, gold

• china: exported silk and porcelain (fine china)

• southwest asia: exported horses, figs, dates

• indian ocean slave trade existed long before atlantic trade

• slaves taken from east africa sold to north africa, middle east, india, madagascar islands

• indian ocean slave trade peaked 18th–19th centuries

• slaves in indian ocean more often worked in shipping industry, household servants, sailors, or soldiers

• lived in towns and cities → more chances to form communities than atlantic slaves

• in islamic communities, slaves had certain rights like marriage

• african words, music, and customs spread to oman, india, and elsewhere via slave trade

• knowledge of monsoon winds was essential for navigation

• winter monsoon winds blew northeast, spring/summer southwest

• merchants had to time voyages, often waiting months in ports

• lengthy stays in ports → cosmopolitan port cultures, sailors marrying locals, mixed families

• triangular lateen sail (popular with arab sailors) allowed ships to catch winds from many directions

• stern rudder (chinese invention) gave ships stability and maneuverability

• small wooden dhows dominated seas during postclassical era

• sailing technology spread rapidly across indian ocean basin

• muslim navigators improved astrolabe in 12th century to determine latitude

• trade fostered rise of states to profit from customs + fees

• malacca (melaka): muslim city-state grew rich by building navy + imposing fees in strait of malacca

• sultan of malacca expanded into sumatra + malay peninsula in 1400s

• malacca’s prosperity based on trade, not farming/mining/manufacturing

• portuguese invaded malacca in 1511 to control trade between europe, india, china

• portuguese gained wealth but conflicts among regional states caused traders to diversify routes and ports

• diasporic communities formed due to merchants waiting for winds + intermarriage with locals

• arab + east african merchants settled in western indian ports, bringing islam via marriage, not conquest

• diaspora = settlements of people away from homeland, blending cultures

• muslim merchant communities: china, indian ocean basin, europe (products: silk, paper, porcelain, spices, gems, woods, gold, salt, amber, furs)

• chinese merchant communities: southeast asia, africa (products: cotton, tea, silk, metals, opium, salt)

• sogdian merchants in samarkand (main caravan merchants, traded silk, gold, wine, linens)

• jewish merchants: china, india, europe (glass beads, linens, dyes, spices)

• malay merchants in sri lanka (nutmeg, pepper, cloves)

• gujarat (western india) became a key go-between for east-west trade, earning massive revenue from customs (more than wealth of some european states)

• swahili city-states (“swahili” = coasters): kilwa, mombasa, zanzibar, zanj coast

• swahili traded gold, ivory, slaves, tortoise shells, peacock feathers, rhino horns

• in return swahili got chinese porcelain, indian cotton, ironwork

• chinese porcelain remains common in ruins of swahili cities

• kilwa ruins show wealth: mosques + merchant homes made of stone/coral vs traditional mud/clay

• cultural transfers intensified: knowledge, commerce, religion, technology spread

• zheng he (1371–1433), muslim admiral under ming dynasty, led seven great voyages

• first voyage in 1405 sent by emperor yongle to display ming power and receive tribute

• zheng he traveled to indonesia, ceylon, arabia, east africa, cape of good hope

• fleet: 300+ ships, 28,000 people

• expeditions gained prestige + new markets for chinese goods

• exotic gifts brought back (first giraffe in china, treasures, new knowledge of world)

• voyages led to chinese immigration to southeast asian ports

• confucian scholars criticized voyages: promoted agrarian stability, saw foreign cultures as barbaric, voyages too expensive

• emperor yongle’s son zhu gaozhi ended voyages, discouraged chinese from overseas sailing

• law passed banning ships with more than two masts

• short-term result: voyages stopped pirate activity in china + southeast asia seas, but piracy resumed after voyages ended

• key terms: sultanate of malacca, gujarat, swahili city-states, indian ocean basin, monsoon winds, indian ocean slave trade, diaspora, zheng he, arab/persian merchant communities east asia, chinese merchant communities southeast asia, malay communities, calicut, spice islands, lateen sails, stern rudder, astrolabe

2.4 trans-saharan

• east african coast had been populated before islam; sahara mostly uninhabited due to arid climate

• nomadic communities conducted some trade, but volume increased with muslim merchants (7th-8th century)

• mali empire (early 1200s) expanded commerce dramatically

• ibn battuta (14th century muslim scholar and explorer) documented caravans facilitating trade

• africa traded gold, ivory, hides, slaves for arab/berber salt, cloth, paper, horses

• zheng he’s seven great voyages traveled to indonesia, ceylon (sri lanka), arabia, east africa, cape of good hope

• purpose of zheng he’s voyages: display ming dynasty might, receive tribute

• fleet: 300+ ships, 28,000 people

• expeditions increased chinese prestige, opened markets for chinese goods

• brought exotic treasures (e.g., first giraffe seen by chinese), expanded understanding of world

• controversies: confucian scholars worried about foreign influence, saw other cultures as inferior

• cost of voyages criticized; emperor yongle’s son zhu gaozhi ended voyages, forbade large ships (>2 masts)

• merchant communities: muslim, chinese, sogdian, jewish, malay

• regions: china, indian ocean basin, europe, southeast asia, africa, samarkand

• products traded: silk, paper, porcelain, spices, gems, woods, gold, salt, amber, cotton, tea, metals, opium, glass beads, linens, dyes, nutmeg, pepper, cloves, wine

• increased demand for products led producers to grow more crops, make more textiles, manufacture more iron

• state oversight increased to manage efficiency, customs and port fees grew

• gujarat (western india) acted as middleman between east and west; revenue from customs exceeded value of some european states

• swahili city-states: kilwa, mombasa, zanzibar

• traded gold, ivory, slaves, tortoise shells, peacock feathers, rhinoceros horns for chinese porcelain, indian cotton, manufactured iron

• architecture: mud/clay buildings, mosques and wealthy merchant homes made of stone/coral during trade height

• transfer of knowledge, culture, technology, commerce, religion intensified due to trade

• zheng he’s voyages reflected cultural transfer and sometimes conflicts

• small wooden dhows dominated postclassical seas; sailing technology spread rapidly

• astrolabe improved by muslim navigators (12th century) to determine latitude

• maritime training networks fostered growth of states

• malacca/melaka (malaysia) became wealthy via navy, fees on ships in strait of malacca

• portuguese invaded malacca (1511) to control trade; generated wealth but caused regional conflicts, diversification of routes

• diasporic communities: merchants settled permanently, intermarried; spread islam culturally

• east african slave trade: slaves exported via land and ocean routes; worked in seaports, households, sailors, soldiers; more rights and community integration than atlantic slave trade

• environmental knowledge: monsoon winds dictated travel; winter winds from northeast, spring/summer from southwest; merchants stayed months in port, creating cosmopolitan cultures

• maritime technology: lateen sails (triangular, flexible), stern rudder (stability, maneuverability), chinese junk (compartments reduce sinking risk)

• spices from india: pepper, nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, cardamom; india: cotton, carpets, high carbon steel, tanned leather, artisan crafts

• swahili coast: slaves, ivory, gold exported from mombasa, mogadishu, sofala; imported chinese porcelain, indian cotton, manufactured iron

• southwest asia exported horses, figs, dates

• indian ocean trade created first true cosmopolitan cultures

• hadith “seek ye knowledge, even to china” encouraged muslim travel and learning

• dar al-islam connected societies from north africa to south asia

• muslim merchants traveled to non-muslim lands before missionaries and armies spread islam

• arab merchants in south asia predated islam expansion

• expansion of islam increased connectivity of indian ocean trade

• dominant muslim persian and arab seafarers transported goods across indian ocean

• west coast india: calicut and cambay became thriving trade centers

• calicut: meeting point for arab and chinese merchants exchanging west and east goods

• local rulers welcomed foreign merchants for wealth and prominence

• increased demand for specialized products in indian ocean trade

• india: high-quality fabrics (cotton), carpets, high carbon steel, tanned leather, artisan crafts

• silk, paper, porcelain traded along silk roads

• caravans facilitated silk road trade

• paper money created to manage trade in china

• crusades expanded european trade networks

• china wanted europe’s gold and silver

• europeans struggled to find a route around cape of good hope

• golden age of silk roads ended after han and roman empire fell

• arab merchants from abbasid empire revived silk roads

• china importing luxury goods led to second golden age

• mongols had biggest impact on trade: unification, respected merchants, enforced laws

• mongols fixed roads, punished bandits, made travel safer

• survivors of mongols benefited from revival of trade routes

• china invented compass, rudder, junk during han dynasty

• compartments in junk reduce sinking risk

• stable silk roads led to thriving oases and commercial innovations

• oases developed along silk roads as trade centers (example: kashgar)

• travelers relied on kashgar for water and food

• kashgar: buddhist city turned islamic scholarship center

• samarkand: center of cultural exchange and trade; diverse religions

• caravanserai: inns in trading cities for travelers and animals; sometimes used for animal trade

• china developed flying cash, banking houses, bill of exchange, etc.

• crusades sparked european interest in luxury asian goods

• hanseatic league controlled trade in north and baltic seas, drove out pirates, monopolized goods

• league ended when national governments became strong enough to protect merchants

2.5 cultural consequences of connectivity 

• whether by caravan through the sahara or gobi deserts or by the junk or dhow on the china sea or indian ocean, goods, people and ideas traveled with relative freedom throughout the networks of exchange in afro eurasia

• marco polo said: “i have not told half of what i saw, for i knew i would not be believed”

• between circa 1200 and circa 1450, the mongol empire provided stability and protection for merchants and travelers

• mongol empire incorporated new people, goods, and ideas within its authority

• technological developments such as gunpowder and paper from china spread through trade

• literary and artistic interactions were documented by travelers like marco polo and ibn battuta

• diffusion of religions between c. 1200 and c. 1450 sometimes unified people and justified kingdom leadership

• diffusion of religions also influenced literary and artistic culture, where themes, subjects, and styles were inspired by spreading religions

• in some regions, religions fused with or coexisted alongside native religions

• interactions resulting from increased trade led to technological innovations

• buddhism came to china from india via the silk roads

• 7th century monk xuanzang helped make buddhism popular in china

• buddhism fused with daoism to create chan/zen buddhism

• ordinary chinese continued practicing chan/zen buddhism even when some leaders resisted

• under song dynasty (960–1279), confucian scholar gentry adopted some buddhist ideals

• printing made buddhist scriptures widely available to the scholar gentry

• buddhist writers influenced chinese literature by writing in the vernacular rather than formal confucian language

• japan and korea adopted buddhism along with confucianism

• in korea, educated elite studied confucian classics, peasants were attracted to buddhist doctrine

• neo-confucianism appeared in tang dynasty and developed further under song dynasty

• neo-confucianism fused rational thought with daoism and buddhist ideas

• neo-confucianism spread to japan, vietnam, and became korea’s official state ideology

• hinduism and buddhism spread through trade to southeast asia

• srivijaya empire (sumatra) was a hindu kingdom

• majapahit kingdom (java) was buddhist

• land-based sinhala dynasties in sri lanka became centers of buddhist study with many monasteries

• buddhist priests in sinhala dynasties often advised monarchs on government

• khmer rouge (angkor kingdom) in present-day cambodia reflected both hindu and buddhist influences in royal monuments

• hindu artwork and sculptures adorned angkor thom

• later buddhist rulers added buddhist sculptures while keeping hindu artwork

• islam spread through merchants, missionaries, and conquest across africa, south asia, and southwest asia

• in africa, swahili language blended bantu and arabic

• timbuktu became a center of islamic learning

• african state leaders strengthened islamic ties through pilgrimages to mecca

• in south asia, buddhists converted more readily than hindus due to disillusionment with buddhist corruption

• in southeast asia, islam attracted lower-caste hindus

• architecture blended hindu designs with islamic patterns

• urdu language developed influences from hindi (sanskrit), arabic, and farsi

• bhakti poets and missionaries sought links between hinduism and islam

• muslim rulers on java combined mughal indian features, local traditions, and chinese-buddhist/confucian traits

• traditional javanese stories, puppetry, and poetry absorbed muslim characters and techniques

• islamic scholars translated greek literary classics into arabic, preserving works of aristotle and others

• scholars brought mathematics texts from india and papermaking techniques from china

• studied medicine from greeks, mesopotamians, and egyptians, improving hospitals and surgery

• champa rice improved agricultural efficiency, spreading from india to vietnam and china

• reliable food supply led to population growth, city expansion, and industries like silk, porcelain, steel, and iron production

• papermaking reached europe in the 13th century, along with printing → rise in literacy

• seafaring technology improved: lateen sails, stern rudder, astrolabe, magnetic compass

• gunpowder and guns spread from china, influencing warfare

• marco polo described hangzhou: population ~1,000,000, southern china cultural center, home to poets like lu yu and xin qiji

• hangzhou located at southern end of grand canal, center of trade, thriving arab community

• other cities thriving: samarkand and kashgar (islamic scholarship, bustling markets, freshwater, food for silk road merchants)

• kashgar declined after conquests by nomadic invaders, ravaged by tamerlane 1389–90

• constantinople weakened by mutinous crusades (4th crusade 1204) and bubonic plague (1346–1349)

• constantinople fell to ottomans after 53-day siege in 1453

• factors contributing to decline: political instability/invasions, disease, decline in agricultural productivity

• factors contributing to growth: political stability, safe/reliable transportation, rise of commerce, plentiful labor, increased agricultural output

• crusades increased european knowledge of byzantine and islamic cultures

• crusades increased demand for eastern goods in europe

• europe opened to disease via trade → black death 1347–1351, killed ~25 million in europe, reduced labor, weakened feudal system, introduced new ideas → renaissance & secularism

• marco polo (venice, late 13th c.) visited kublai khan, wrote book describing china’s size, wealth, urbanization, trade

• marco polo wrote from merchant perspective, focused on trade matters

• marco polo observed paper money, fair-skinned men/women, silk clothing in wang jiao

• ibn battuta (1304–1353, morocco) traveled 30 years: central asia, southeast asia, south asia, china, spain, north africa, mali, mainly muslim lands

• ibn battuta dictated book “a gift to those who contemplate the wonders of cities” to sultan of morocco

• ibn battuta wrote from devout muslim perspective, documenting islamic practice and achievements

• marjorie kempe (c. 1373–c. 1440, english mystic) dictated pilgrimage account to jerusalem, rome, germany, spain

• marjorie kempe’s book provides first-hand account of middle-class medieval woman, spiritual experiences, daily life with 14 children

2.6 environmental consequences of connectivity 

• trade routes enabled spread of novel agricultural products, such as citrus fruits to the mediterranean basin

• most dramatic environmental consequence of increased commerce was disease

• bubonic plague (black death) originated in central asia, struck china, india, persia, egypt, arrived in europe in 1347

• black death killed 75–200 million people in eurasia, peaked in europe 1347–1351

• merchants introduced crops to new regions, impacting land use, population growth, and distribution

• champa rice, from champa states in vietnam, introduced to china as tribute

• champa rice drought resistant, flood resistant, yielded 2 crops/year

• widespread distribution of champa rice in china supported population growth

• terrace farming in uplands and paddies in lowlands allowed cultivation in previously unusable land

• population growth in china caused migration southward to original rice regions, contributing to city growth

• indonesian seafarers introduced bananas to sub-saharan africa

• bananas enriched diets, led to population spike

• bantu people migrated to regions where yams did not grow easily, using bananas as staple

• banana cultivation increased land use for farming

• caliphs spread islam, arabic language, cotton, sugar, citrus crops beyond arabian peninsula

• markets of samarkand introduced fruits, vegetables, rice, citrus to europe

• european demand for sugar fueled transatlantic slave trade in 1500s

• population increases put pressure on resources, causing environmental degradation

• overgrazing outside great zimbabwe led to city abandonment in late 1400s

• feudal europe: overuse of farmland, deforestation caused soil erosion and reduced agricultural production

• little ice age (c. 1300–1800) decreased agricultural output

• environmental degradation contributed to mayan decline in americas

• mongol conquest transmitted fleas carrying bubonic plague from southern china to central asia, southeast asia, europe

• caravanserai, housing people and animals together, likely facilitated spread of plague

• black death killed 1/3 of european population in few years

• reduced workforce decreased agricultural production but increased labor value

• survivors could demand higher wages, contributing to economic changes and decline of feudalism

• black death killed about 25 million in china and asia between 1332–1347

• south asia and sub-saharan africa less affected due to fewer trading ports

• social, political, environmental, disease, cultural, economic, technological impacts included

• environmental impacts: degradation, overgrazing, deforestation, soil erosion

• crop diffusion included champa rice, bananas, sugar, citrus fruits in mediterranean, new rice varieties in east asia

2.7 comparison of economic exchange

• calicut known as city of spices, merchants traded goods for pepper and cinnamon from india and other regions

• calicut similar to silk road cities in security and diversity of market patrons

• calicut differed in type of currency and how polity profited from trade

• silk roads connected gobi desert, mountain passes in china and central asia to southwest asia and europe

• silk road merchants specialized in luxury goods

• indian ocean trade depended on monsoons, linked east asia with southeast asia, south asia, southwest asia

• indian ocean merchants traded goods too heavy for land transport

• trans-saharan trade routes connected north africa and mediterranean across desert to west and east africa

• trans-saharan merchants traded salt from north africa with gold from kingdoms south of desert

• intra-regional trade existed well before common era; postclassical trade built on earlier routes

• kingdoms, empires, city-states provided stability for trade networks and merchants

• technical upgrades supported trade: magnetic compass, lateen sail, high-yield crops, saddles for heavy loads

• purpose of trade networks primarily economic: exchange of goods for what people wanted, needed, or could trade

• trade also facilitated travel of diplomats and missionaries, spreading alliances, religions, and cultural practices

• trading cities emerged as “knots” holding networks together

• silk roads trading cities included chang’an, samarkand, aleppo, mosul

• indian ocean trading cities included malacca, calicut, hormuz, mombasa, alexandria

• trans-saharan trading cities included gao, timbuktu, marrakesh, cairo

• trading cities centralized using wealth to protect routes and develop navies

• malacca grew wealthy from fees on ships/cargo passing straits; wealth used for strong navy

• standardized currency encouraged centralization and sped transactions

• silk roads exported silk, tea, spices, dyes, porcelain, rice, paper, gunpowder west; imported horses, saddles, fruit, domestic animals, honey

• silk road technologies included saddles, caravanserai

• silk road religions spread: buddhism to east/southeast asia, neo-confucianism to korea/japan/vietnam, islam to south asia

• indian ocean exported from east africa: gold, ivory, quartz, animal skins; from southwest asia: citrus, fruits, dates, books; from southern india: textiles, peppers, pearls, dhows, junks

• indian ocean technologies: stern rudder, lateen sail, astrolabe, magnetic compass

• trans-saharan trade north to south: horses, books, salt; south to north: gold, ivory, cloth, slaves

• trans-saharan technologies: camel caravans, saddles to increase load bearing

• unique currencies existed: silk, tin ingots, cowrie shells; later shifted to gold/metal coins

• chinese innovations: flying cash, early banking, credit extension

• rising demand for luxury goods increased production efficiency, proto-industrialization in china for iron, steel, porcelain

• new business practices: partnerships to share investment risk

• production of textiles and porcelain in china, spices in south/southeast asia increased to meet demand

• maritime trade volume began to surpass overland trade

• larger ships and improved navigation technology required

• demand for labor rose with product demand

• labor forms included: free peasants, artisans, cottage industries, debt labor, enslaved people

• trade and slavery common along indian ocean and trans-saharan routes

• large-scale projects like irrigation canals, military defenses, buildings required organized labor coordinated through kinship ties

• vijayanagara empire tank construction employed 15–20,000 men under captains supervising labor

• social structures between 1200–1450 still defined by class/caste and largely patriarchal

• mongol women had more freedom than other afro-eurasian regions: moved freely, rejected burka and foot binding, acted as top advisers

• european women worked as farmers/artisans, had guilds

• southeast asian women operated and controlled marketplaces for powerful families

• elsewhere, women had far fewer opportunities and freedoms than men

• trade networks contributed to spread of bubonic plague (black death), causing massive population decline

• black death killed at least 1/3 of europe’s population; china experienced tens of millions of deaths in 1330s–1350s

• cultural diffusion and educational centers developed in cities like canton, samarkand, timbuktu, cairo, venice

• political instability and increased agriculture strained environment

• soil erosion from deforestation and overgrazing forced populations to migrate