Notes on the League of Nations and Appeasement

Disarmament Conference Failure

By 1934, all major powers knew Hitler was secretly rearming Germany and began their own rearmament.
The Disarmament Conference struggled on but ultimately failed in 1934.
David Low's cartoon criticized dictators and the League's ineffectiveness.
Reasons for failure:
- Some believed it was doomed from the start with no one serious about disarmament.
- Britain and France were divided on the issue.
- Many in Britain felt the Treaty of Versailles was unfair.
- In 1935, Britain signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, allowing Germany to build its navy up to 35% of the British navy's size, violating the Treaty of Versailles, without consulting allies or the League.
- Each country seemed to prioritize its own interests over the League's.
Disarmament failure was more serious in the 1930s because Germany used it as an excuse for rearmament.

Mussolini's Invasion of Abyssinia

Mussolini's invasion of Abyssinia in 1935 was the fatal blow to the League.
Similarities to the Japanese invasion of Manchuria:
- Italy was a leading League member.
- Italy wanted to expand its empire by invading another country.
Differences from Manchuria:
- The dispute was on the League’s doorstep (Europe).
- Abyssinia bordered Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and British colonies.
- The League could not claim inaccessibility.
Background:
- In 1896, Italian troops were defeated by Abyssinia at the Battle of Adowa; Mussolini wanted revenge.
- Mussolini desired Abyssinia's fertile land and mineral wealth, glory, conquest, and to restore the Roman Empire.
- In December 1934, a dispute occurred between Italian and Abyssinian soldiers at the Wal-Wal oasis, 80 km inside Abyssinia.
- Mussolini claimed it as Italian territory and prepared to invade.
- Emperor Haile Selassie appealed to the League for help.
Phase 1: League Plays for Time (January 1935 - October 1935)
- Mussolini negotiated with League while preparing his army.
- Britain and France played for time to maintain relations with Mussolini, who seemed an ally against Hitler.
- They signed the Stresa Pact against German rearmament but didn't address Abyssinia.
- Some historians suggest Mussolini believed Britain and France would ignore Abyssinia in return for joining the Stresa Pact.
- Public outcry arose against Italy’s behavior.
- A British League of Nations Union ballot showed support for military force to defend Abyssinia.
- British politicians began to ‘get tough’ ahead of an autumn election.
- Foreign Minister Hoare gave a speech about collective security.
- The League did nothing to discourage Mussolini.
- After eight months, a committee reported that neither side was responsible for the Wal-Wal incident and proposed giving Mussolini some of Abyssinia; Mussolini rejected it.
Phase 2: Sanctions or Not?
- Mussolini invaded Abyssinia in October 1935.
- Abyssinians were no match for the Italian army with tanks, aeroplanes, and poison gas.
- The League was designed for such disputes and was ideally placed to act.
- The Covenant made it clear that sanctions must be introduced against aggressors.
- A committee was set up to agree on sanctions.
- Delays allowed Mussolini to build up raw materials.
- The League banned arms sales to Italy, loans to Italy, imports from Italy, and exports of rubber, tin, and metals to Italy.
- The League delayed banning oil exports for two months, fearing American lack of support and damage to members’ economic interests.
- 30,000 British coal miners were about to lose their jobs because of the ban on coal exports to Italy.
- The Suez Canal, owned by Britain and France, was not closed to Mussolini’s supply ships.
- Closing the canal could have ended the Abyssinian campaign quickly.
- Britain and France feared war with Italy.
- This failure was fatal for Abyssinia.
Hoare-Laval Pact
- Secret deal between British and French foreign ministers (Hoare and Laval) to give Mussolini two-thirds of Abyssinia in return for calling off the invasion.
- Laval proposed showing the plan to Mussolini before the League or Haile Selassie.
- Laval said France would no longer support sanctions if Britain didn't agree.
- Details leaked to the French press.
- Haile Selassie demanded a League debate.
- Hoare and Laval were sacked.
- American oil producers actually stepped up their exports to Italy.
Outcomes
- On March 7, 1936, Hitler marched his troops into the Rhineland.
- The French were desperate for Italian support against Germany and prepared to give Abyssinia to Mussolini.
- Italy continued to defy the League and took Addis Ababa in May 1936.
- Haile Selassie was forced into exile on May 2.
- Mussolini formally annexed Abyssinia on May 9.
- The League watched helplessly and collective security was shown up as an empty promise.
- The League of Nations failed.
- In November 1936, Mussolini and Hitler signed the Rome-Berlin Axis agreement.

League Weaknesses in the 1930s

Critics cited organizational weaknesses that would make it ineffective.
Manchurian Crisis, Disarmament Talks, Abyssinian Crisis:
- The League was slow to act.
- Members acted in their own interests.
- Without the USA, it was powerless.

League's Failure

Historians agree about the Abyssinian crisis: disaster for League, serious consequences for world peace.
The implications of the conquest of Abyssinia were not confined to East Africa.
Victory cemented Mussolini’s prestige but Italy gained little in material terms.
The damage done to the prestige of Britain, France, and the League of Nations was irreversible.
The only winner was Adolf Hitler.
People concluded that it was no longer much use placing their hopes in the League.
The real death of the League was in 1935.
One day it was a powerful body imposing sanctions, the next day it was an empty sham.
Hitler watched.
World War began in Manchuria fifteen years prior.
Four years later, Mussolini could have been easily stopped if sanctions had been taken, and the Suez Canal closed.

Reasons for the League's Failure in the 1930s

FAILURE:

Absent powers - key countries, particularly the USA, were not in the League. In Abyssinia, the USA…
French and British self-interest - they looked after their own interests rather than the League’s. In Manchuria, this was a problem because … In Abyssinia, they …
Lack of armed forces - the League had no troops of its own. In Manchuria, the League could not send troops there as it was impossible to reach. In Abyssinia, British and French forces could have acted on behalf of the League, but the British and French governments refused.
Ineffective sanctions - sanctions either weren’t used or didn’t work. In Manchuria, they … In Abyssinia, they …
Economic depression led to the rise of the dictators - and made League members less willing to impose sanctions for fear of harming their own trade. In Manchuria, economic problems led to Japan … In Abyssinia, economic worries prevented …
Unfair treaty - the League’s job was to enforce treaties that some members thought were unfair. In Manchuria, … In Abyssinia, …
Reaching decisions too slowly - the League took ages to act. In Manchuria, … In Abyssinia, …

League of Nations Summary

The League of Nations was set up to solve problems between countries before they led to war.
Its methods were mainly diplomacy (talking), trade sanctions, or if necessary using the armies of their members.
It was the big idea of President Wilson, but his own country, the USA, never joined and instead returned to its isolationist policy.
The leading members were Britain and France, but they had their own interests and bypassed the League when it suited them.
The League’s structure made it slow to take decisions, which made it less effective in settling international disputes, but it did have some successes in the 1920s.
The League’s agencies (committees and commissions) were set up to solve social problems such as post-war refugee crises, health problems and slavery/forced labour. It had many successes throughout the 1920s and 1930s.
The League was supposed to encourage disarmament but failed to get any countries to disarm.
In the 1930s the League’s work was made much harder by the economic depression, which made countries less willing to co-operate and helped turn previously democratic countries such as Germany into dictatorships.
In 1931–32 the League condemned the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and China but was helpless to do anything to stop it.
In 1936–37 the League tried to prevent Italy invading Abyssinia but it could not agree what to do and never even enforced trade sanctions.
From 1936 the League was seen as irrelevant to international affairs although its agencies continued its humanitarian work.

Was Hitler's Foreign Policy to Blame for the Outbreak of WWII?

The chapter examines the extent to which Hitler's foreign policy was responsible for the outbreak of WWII.
Hitler's Plans:
- As early as 1925, Hitler outlined his plans in Mein Kampf, including abolishing the Treaty of Versailles, expanding German territory, and defeating communism.
- Abolish the Treaty of Versailles: Hitler called the German leaders who had signed it ‘The November Criminals’.
- Expand German territory: Hitler wanted to unite with Austria, reclaim territory lost in the Treaty of Versailles, incorporate German minorities in other countries, and carve out an empire in eastern Europe (Lebensraum).
- Defeat communism: Hitler considered Bolsheviks responsible for Germany's defeat in WWI and believed they wanted to take over Germany.
The British Government was to consider the fact that:
- Britain is a leading member of the League of Nations and is supposed to uphold the Treaty of Versailles, by force if necessary.
- The British Government does not trust the communists and thinks that a strong Germany could help to stop the communist threat.
Hitler's Actions:
- Timeline of Hitler's actions between 1933 and 1939:
  - 1933: Took Germany out of the League of Nations; began rearming Germany.
  - 1934: Tried to take over Austria but was prevented by Mussolini.
  - 1935: Held massive rearmament rally in Germany; reintroduced conscription in Germany.
  - 1936: Sent German troops into the Rhineland; made an anticommunist alliance with Japan.
  - 1937: Tried out Germany’s new weapons in the Spanish Civil War; made an anticommunist alliance with Italy.
  - 1938: Took over Austria; took over the Sudetenland area of Czechoslovakia.
  - 1939: Invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia; invaded Poland; war.
Interpretations of Hitler's Actions:
- Historians widely accepted that Hitler planned it all step by step until the 1960s.
- A.J.P. Taylor argued that Hitler was a gambler who took logical steps to see what he could get away with, blaming Britain, the Allies, and the League for not standing up to him.
Other factors to be blamed:
- the worldwide economic depression
- the weaknesses of the post-war treaties
- the actions of the leading powers – Britain, France, the USA and the ussr.

Rearmament

Hitler's first steps after coming to power in 1933: increase Germany’s armed forces. Thousands of unemployed workers were drafted into the army.
This helped him to reduce unemployment, which was one of the biggest problems he faced in Germany and deliver on his promise to make Germany strong again and to challenge the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.
Rearmament began in secret at first. He made a great public display of his desire not to rearm Germany – that he was only doing it because other countries refused to disarm.
He then followed Japan’s example and withdrew from the League of Nations.
In 1935 Hitler openly staged a massive military rally celebrating the German armed forces and he even reintroduced conscription to the army.
He was breaking the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, but he guessed correctly that he would get away with rearmament.
Many other countries were using rearmament as a way to fight unemployment.
Rearmament was a very popular move in Germany. It boosted Nazi support.
Britain had some sympathy with Germany on this issue.
Limits put on Germany’s armed forces by the Treaty of Versailles were too tight and the permitted forces were not enough to defend Germany from attack.
A strong Germany would be a good buffer against communism.
Britain had already helped to dismantle the Treaty by signing the Anglo- German Naval Agreement with Hitler in 1935, allowing Germany to increase its navy to up to 35 per cent of the size of the British navy.
The French were angry with Britain about this, but there was little they could do.
Through the rest of the 1930s Hitler ploughed more and more spending into armaments.

The Saar Plebiscite

The Saar region of Germany had been run by the League of Nations since 1919.
In 1935 the League of Nations held the promised plebiscite for people to vote on whether their region should return to German rule.
Hitler was initially wary as many of his opponents had fled to the Saar.
The League, however, was determined that the vote should take place and Hitler bowed to this pressure.
Around 90% of the population voted to return to German rule.
After the vote Hitler declared that he had ‘no further territorial demands to make of France’.

Remilitarization of the Rhineland

In March 1936, Hitler took his first really big risk by moving troops into the Rhineland area of Germany.
The Rhineland was the large area either side of the River Rhine that formed Germany’s western border with France and Belgium.
The demilitarisation of the Rhineland was one of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.
It was designed to protect France from invasion from Germany. It had also been accepted by Germany in the Locarno Treaties of 1925.
Hitler was taking a huge gamble with remilitarisation.
If he had been forced to withdraw, he would have faced humiliation and would have lost the support of the German army (many of the generals were unsure about him, anyway).
Hitler knew the risks, but he had chosen the time and place well.
- France and the USSR had just signed a treaty to protect each other against attack from Germany
- Hitler knew that many people in Britain felt that he had a right to station his troops in the Rhineland and he was fairly confident that Britain would not intervene. His gamble was over France.
Hitler ordered 20,000 troops into the Rhineland and his generals had orders to retreat if there was any resistance from the French.
Despite the rearmament programme, Germany’s army was no match for the French army. It lacked essential equipment and air support.
In the end, however, Hitler’s luck held.
The attention of the League of Nations was on the Abyssinian crisis which was happening at exactly the same time.
The League condemned Hitler’s action but had no power to do anything else.
Even the French, who were most directly threatened by the move, were divided over what to do.
In the end, France refused to act without British support and so Hitler’s big gamble paid off.

The Spanish Civil War

In 1936 a civil war broke out in Spain between supporters of the Republican Government (Republicans) and right- wing rebels (Nationalists) under General Franco.
The war quickly gained an international dimension.
Stalin’s USSR supported the Republican Government (in the form of weapons, aircraft and pilots).
Thousands of volunteers from around 50 countries joined International Brigades to support the Republicans.
Hitler and Mussolini then declared their support for General Franco as a man who shared their world view.
Britain and France refused to intervene directly, although France did provide some weapons for the Republicans.
Germany and Italy also agreed not to intervene but then blatantly did so.
Mussolini sent thousands of Italian troops (officially they were ‘volunteers’).
Germany sent aircraft and pilots who took part in most of the major campaigns of the war including bombing raids on civilian populations.
Hitler viewed the Spanish Civil War as a good opportunity to try out his new Luftwaffe (air force) and develop the Blitzkrieg tactics the German military would use in future conflicts.
The conflict had important consequences for peace.

Militarism and the Axis

In 1936, Germany and Japan signed an Anti-Comintern Pact, to oppose communism.
Comintern was the USSR’s organisation for spreading communism to other countries.
In 1937, Italy also signed it. This was called the Rome–Berlin Axis alliance.

Anschluss with Austria, 1938

Hitler believed that the two states belonged together as one German nation.
Many in Austria supported the idea of union with Germany.
Hitler had tried to take over Austria in 1934, but on that occasion Mussolini had stopped him.
But in 1938 the situation was different. Hitler and Mussolini were now allies.
Hitler encouraged them to stir up trouble for the Government and hold demonstrations demanding union with Germany.
Hitler then told the Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg that only Anschluss (political union) could sort out these problems.
Schuschnigg appealed to Britain and France but it failed to provide any support so Schuschnigg felt he had no option but to call a plebiscite (a referendum) to see what the Austrian people wanted.
Hitler was not prepared to risk this – he might lose!
He simply sent his troops into Austria in March 1938, supposedly to guarantee a trouble-free plebiscite.
Under the watchful eye of the Nazi troops, 99.75% voted for Anschluss.
Anschluss was completed without any military confrontation with France and Britain.

Appeasement: For and Against!

Neville Chamberlain is the man most associated with this policy.
Arguments for:
Trusting Hitler
Memories of the Great War
Fear of communism
British arms
The USA
The British empire
Economic problems
The Treaty of Versailles

Arguments against:

Make a stand!
The Soviet Union
German arms
Hitler’s allies

The Sudetenland, 1938

Chamberlain asked Hitler whether he had designs on Czechoslovakia and was reassured by Hitler’s promise (Source 21).
Konrad Henlein, the leader of the Nazis in the Sudetenland, demanded that the area should be part of Germany.
Britain, France and the USSR had all promised to support Czechoslovakia if it came to war.
The Czechs themselves had a modern army.
If there was a war, people expected that it would bring heavy bombing of civilians as had happened in the Spanish Civil War, and in cities around Britain councils began digging air-raid shelters.

Crisis Talks and the Munich Agreement

Hitler moderated his demands, saying he was only interested in parts of the Sudetenland – and then only if a plebiscite showed that the Sudeten Germans wanted to join Germany.
Chamberlain thought this was reasonable. He felt it was yet another of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles that needed to be addressed.
At a second meeting, Hitler increased his demands and said he ‘regretted’ that the previously arranged terms were not enough and that he wanted all the Sudetenland.
With Mussolini’s help, a final meeting was held in Munich on 29 September and the leaders of Britain, Germany, France and Italy decided on the fate of Czechoslovakia.
On 29 September they decided to give Hitler what he wanted.
They announced that Czechoslovakia was to lose the Sudetenland.
This is known as the Munich Agreement.
The following morning Chamberlain and Hitler published a joint declaration, which Chamberlain said would bring ‘peace for our time’.

Consequences of the Munich Agreement

On 1 October German troops marched into the Sudetenland.
At the same time, Hungary and Poland helped themselves to Czech territory where Hungarians and Poles were living.
The Czechs had been betrayed.

Czechoslovakia, 1939: The End of Appeasement

In March 1939 German troops took over the rest of Czechoslovakia.
Unlike the Sudeten Germans, the Czechs were not separated from their homeland by the Treaty of Versailles.
Britain and France told Hitler that if he invaded Poland they would declare war on Germany.
The policy of Appeasement was ended.
After years of Appeasement, Hitler did not actually believe that Britain and France would risk war by resisting him.