GEO1010 - Citizenship Study Notes

GEO1010 - Citizenship Study Notes

Definition of Citizenship

• Citizenship is a contract between the state and specific individuals residing in that state, wherein individuals provide certain commitments in return for rights.

• It is a legal category representing a social contract, a claim to rights, and an identity. Citizenship can result in violence and exclusion for those who lack it.

Origins of Citizenship

• Ancient Greek Roots: Citizenship originated from the Ancient Greek polis, characterized by democratic participation, although exclusionary as women and slaves were not considered citizens.

• Roman Empire: Citizenship served as a tool for assimilating various populations into the empire.

• Treaty of Westphalia: This established a link between citizenship and notions of sovereignty and nationalism.

• Inclusion/Exclusion Factors: Citizenship often correlates with shared language and culture among the citizens.

Scholarly Perspective on Citizenship

• The concept of citizenship has evolved historically alongside the state, often defined as "membership of a political community". As per Painter and Jeffrey (2009: 88), citizenship is recognized under the laws or customs as a legal member of a sovereign state.

Types of Citizenship

• Citizenship as Status vs. Citizenship as Membership: Distinction between legal entitlement and active role within the political community.

• T.H. Marshall's Aspects of Citizenship (1950):

  • Civil Rights: Protection from the state while enjoying civil liberties.

  • Political Rights: The right to participate in a democratic society.

  • Social Rights: Entitlement to social and economic welfare from the state (notably during the 20th century).

De-naturalising Citizenship

• Individuals living within a state share legal, political, social, and cultural markers that constitute their citizenship identity.

• To maintain an idealized vision of states, nations, and citizenship, considerable effort is required.

Importance of Borders

• Borders delineate who is included or excluded from citizenship. States classify individuals as either citizens or non-citizens, impacting political community involvement.

• Case Example - Brexit: Brexit represents a move to exert control over national borders in the UK, influencing citizenship dynamics in relation to immigration and national identity.

Acquiring Citizenship

• Jus soli: Citizenship by birth, prevalent in North and South America.

• Jus sanguinis: Citizenship by descent or blood.

The British Nationality Acts

• British Nationality Act 1981: Defines British citizenship, granting automatic citizenship to individuals born in the UK to at least one British or settled parent.

• British Nationality Act 1948: Established distinct nationalities for the UK and its colonies while granting British women independent nationality rights regardless of their spouses' citizenship.

De facto vs. De jure Citizenship

• De jure Citizenship (Formal):

  • Legal citizenship conferring rights within the state.

  • Political citizenship is defined in a formal sense, e.g., through the Life in the UK Test:

  • Costs £50 to take the test, requiring proof of address and a biometric residence permit for booking.

  • The test consists of 24 questions about British traditions and customs; a minimum score of 75% is needed to pass.

• De facto Citizenship (Substantive):

  • Informal citizenship, where individuals act as citizens without formal legal status.

  • E.g., individuals in the UK before the 1981 nationality act who lost citizenship rights yet lived, worked, and contributed to the community.

  • Windrush Generation: Caribbean immigrants who arrived in the UK between 1948-1981 without needing to apply for citizenship due to their Commonwealth status.

  • In 2019-2020, issues arose when the Home Office demanded proof of legal rights to work, which many, including Windrush individuals, could not provide, leading to wrongful classifications as illegal immigrants and subsequent housing and healthcare denials, culminating in protests that led to the establishment of the Windrush Scheme.

Citizenship Exclusionary and Inclusionary Dynamics

• Exclusion from Citizenship:

  • Citizenship fundamentally encompasses exclusion, defining who is included (e.g., male citizens in Ancient Greece) and who is excluded today (e.g., differing rights for migrants, ethnic and sexual minorities).

  • Governments can deprive individuals of citizenship under circumstances seen as 'for the public good' or if citizenship was obtained through fraud.

  • The Nationality and Borders Act of 2022 allows deprivation of citizenship without notification, raising ethical concerns.

Case Example: Citizenship in Israel-Palestine

• Five categories of Palestinians:

  • Palestinian citizens of Israel

  • Residents of Jerusalem

  • West Bank Palestinians

  • Gaza Palestinians

  • Palestinian refugees

• Key Legislation:

  • 1950 Law of Return - Allows Jews to immigrate and gain citizenship in Israel.

  • 1952 Nationality Law - Defines citizenship rights in Israel.

  • 2003 Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law - Regulatory aspects of citizenship.

  • 2018 Basic Law - Affirms Israel as the nation-state of the Jewish people.

• Contested Citizenship: Palestinian representation in Israeli Knesset, where they constitute around 21.1% of the population but hold 11% of parliamentary seats.

• Future of Citizenship in Israel-Palestine: Potential outcomes include:

  • Israel annexing the West Bank without extending citizenship rights, leading to ongoing disputes over representation and rights.

  • A one-person, one-vote solution as an alternative approach to citizenship in the region.

• Private spaces play crucial roles in citizenship politics, contributing to collective action and political activism.

Citizenship in the Gulf

• GCC States:

  • Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE

  • Characterized by oil-rich authoritarian monarchies with small populations, heavily reliant on migrant labor.

• Citizenship Acquisition and Benefits:

  • Primarily based on jus sanguinis (by descent) and is patrilineal.

  • Citizens have access to significant state benefits (e.g., low taxation, housing subsidies, free healthcare) but generally lack political rights.

  • There is no direct route to citizenship for foreigners.

  • The low number of citizens helps sustain state benefits and foster loyalty to the state.

• Selected Citizenship for Foreigners:

  • Gulf states occasionally offer citizenship to a select group of foreigners, differentiating between 'expats' (often skilled professionals) and migrant workers.

  • Citizenship can be used as a political lever and is increasingly tied to economic diversification efforts.

• Challenges to Citizenship: "If you believe you're a citizen of the world, you're a citizen of nowhere." - Theresa May, 2016.

Amnesty and Regularization Programs

• United States Immigration Reform and Control Act 1986: Granted residency rights to 2.7 million migrants.

• France (1966): "Regularization" of migrants who had entered illegally or overstayed visas, providing them with legal papers.

• Spain (2005): Granted "amnesty" to those who entered prior to 2005, provided they had a job and no criminal record.

Global Citizenship

• Definition: While traditional citizenship focuses on the state, many pressing political issues transcend state boundaries.

• This leads to the idea that "Democracy is failing on account of its state-based nature," suggesting a shift from national citizens to global citizens.

• Addresses issues of inequality or opportunity on a broader scale.

Insurgent Citizenship

• Concept: Coined by Painter and Jeffrey (2009).

• Characteristics:

  • Involves a rise in public action operating outside the formal spaces and institutions of the state.

  • Conceptions of political change can be formed between protest groups and individuals affected by their actions.

  • Informal political channels.

  • Intersections of global, national and local scales through insurgent citizenship