Study Notes on the End of the Frontier

The railroads, together with the Homestead Act, were the preeminent factors of western settlement.
Context of Railroads:
- During the 1840s, approximately 3,000 miles of rail track existed west of the Mississippi.
- By 1880, this figure grew to 115,000 miles of railroad track laid.
The expansion and establishment of a national rail system directly contributed to:
- The decimation of buffalo herds in the prairies.
- The destruction of Native American lifestyles.

Between 1850 and 1871, the federal government granted vast land to railroads, amounting to 170 million acres for track laying.
The Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 facilitated this by giving land grants and loans to the Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads tasked to construct the first transcontinental railroad.

By the 1860s, a competitive race commenced between the Union Pacific and Central Pacific:
- Central Pacific commenced in Sacramento, CA, moving eastward.
- Union Pacific began in Omaha, Nebraska, moving westward.
Labor force comprised of Civil War veterans, Irish immigrants, Chinese immigrants, Black Americans, and Mexican Americans.
Both companies converged in Utah by spring of 1869, culminating in the driving of a golden spike at Promontory Point, Utah, on May 10, 1869, with the Union Pacific claiming victory in this race.

In the late 1800s, regional times posed challenges to effective railroad operations.
In 1881, railroads commissioned William Frederick Allen to simplify timekeeping, resulting in:
- The establishment of 4 time zones: Pacific, Mountain, Central, and Eastern.
- Standard Railway Time officially instituted on November 18, 1883, which met with mixed reactions from citizens preferring local or traditional time.

The necessity to connect U.S. settlement centers necessitated a transcontinental railroad, prompting efforts to displace Native American claims through:
- Political maneuvering and land grants.
- Military actions that confined Native peoples to reservations.
The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 pressured tribes like the Shawnee to surrender vast land for approximately 60 cents an acre for rail lines.
Railroads encouraged white settlers and paved the way for new towns, farms, and ranches on Native land, and significantly facilitated military operations against Native Americans.

Loss of Native homelands accelerated in a mere 30 years post-Mississippi, leading to:
- The collapse of Native economies and cultures through displacement and military alliances with railroads.

The Homestead Act of 1862 facilitated the settlement of approximately 400 million acres of the Great Plains.
- Offered 160 acres of free land to claimants who met specific criteria:
- Must be head of household, at least 21 years old, no military record against the U.S., and a citizen (or intended citizen).
Challenges faced by homesteaders:
- Difficult terrain requiring clearing of prairie grass for farming.
- Limited building materials, leading to construction using sod.
- Harsh environmental conditions like droughts, floods, blizzards, and locust plagues.

Despite no cost for land, essential supplies posed financial burdens leading to debts:
- Horses, livestock, wagons, tools, seeds, and fertilizer were crucial yet often inaccessible.
Only about 40% of homesteaders from 1862-1900 successfully claimed their land. The rest faced conditions leading to abandonment or death.

Immigrants, former slaves, and landless farmers constituted the homesteading demographic, combining traditional farming techniques with new practices.
The pursuit of economic betterment motivated most to settle in states like Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas.

John Deere introduced the steel plow in 1837 facilitating agricultural efforts on tough terrain.
Cyrus McCormick mass-produced harvesting machines beginning in 1847.
Agricultural experiment stations emerged from the Morrill Act (1862) for scientific and technical improvements.

Limited water resources in the West hindered agricultural productivity.
Cultural isolation due to distance between settlers often led to communal living arrangements based on ethnicity.

Differing worldviews between Native Americans and white settlers:
- Native Americans viewed land as communal and sacred, not for ownership.
- Settlers believed private land ownership showed improvement and entitlement to the land.

The allure of potential wealth led to significant migrations post-Gold Rush:
- Notable Gold Rush events include the 1849 California Gold Rush and discoveries in Colorado (1858) and Nevada (1859).
- Mining camps often characterized by harsh living conditions and rapid establishment.
- Many Chinese immigrants served essential roles in establishing businesses in mining boomtowns.

South Texas evolved as a significant zone for open-range grazing.
- Longhorns, initially brought by Spanish settlers, dominated herding.
- Cowboys, influenced by Mexican vaqueros, became essential to ranching practices post-Civil War.

In 1893, Frederick Jackson Turner published his essay, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History,” positing that the frontier shaped the American character.
- His thesis received criticism for oversimplifying Native American dispossessions and naively viewing land as “unsettled.”
The iconic cow towns became representative of the American West narrative.

The invention of barbed wire transformed ranching, leading to a decline in cowboy employment and a shift in cattle management.
Yellowstone National Park, established in 1872 to protect natural landscapes, faced challenges due to funding issues and Army management.

The introduction of horses revolutionized Native American hunting tactics.
The buffalo became essential for the Plains tribes, serving as a major resource for their livelihoods.
- Cultural ceremonies connected tribal identities deeply to the buffalo.

The 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie aimed to establish peace between settlers and the Sioux, designating sacred land for them.
Subsequent mining activities in the Black Hills broke the treaty, stirring conflicts and leading to events like the Battle of Little Bighorn where Custer was defeated.

Tribal governance relied on councils, with children learning cultural traditions through storytelling and communal practices.

Pre-Civil War policies reserved land for Native Americans; however, post-war, policies flipped to prioritize construction of reservations.
The Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 marginalized tribal sovereignty by removing treaty privileges.

Major events of resistance included the Sand Creek Massacre (1864) where innocent Cheyenne and Arapaho were attacked by militia.
Chief Joseph's courageous journey seeking freedom for the Nez Percé ultimately led to tragic surrender despite successful evasion efforts.

Indian Boarding Schools aimed at assimilating Native American children, stripping them of their cultural identities.
The Dawes Act (1887) failed miserably, leading to the loss of vast amounts of land and exploitation of tribes.
The Ghost Dance movement culminated in violence, with the Wounded Knee Massacre representing the tragic end of hostilities.