6) Read the ethos/pathos/logos/rhetorical fallacies document

Aristotle’s Three Appeals to Audience

• Definition and Purpose: These are the modes of persuasion in an argument used to present oneself to an audience. They are methods of gaining the reader's trust or belief. If these appeals are ineffective, the reader will remain skeptical of the argument. In a fully persuasive argument, all three appeals (ethos, logos, and pathos) work together to support one another.

• 1) Logos (Logical Appeal):

  • Core Meaning: Persuading through the use of reasoning.

  • Methods of Appeal: Logos utilizes physical evidence, expert testimony, common sense, and probability.

  • Internal Consistency: It refers to the internal consistency of the message, including the clarity of the claim, the logic of the underlying reasons, and the effectiveness of the supporting evidence.

  • Evaluative Question: Does the writer give logical reasons for believing his or her claims?

• 2) Ethos (Ethical Appeal):

  • Core Meaning: This concerns the character of the speaker or writer and is an appeal to their authority or credibility.

  • Requirements for the Writer: A writer must demonstrate that they are informed, intelligent, benevolent, and honest. If a presenter appears trustworthy, the audience is more likely to listen and believe.

  • Delivery: Ethos is often conveyed through the tone and style of the message, as well as the manner in which the writer refers to differing or opposing views.

  • Evaluative Questions:

    • Does the writer show impressive credentials or an impressive reputation?

    • Do they convey knowledge of the subject, intelligence, fair-mindedness, honesty, trustworthiness, goodwill, or a genuine moral quality?

• 3) Pathos (Emotional Appeal):

  • Core Meaning: Persuading by appealing to the reader's emotions. It causes the audience to identify with the writer's point of view and feel what the writer feels.

  • Methods of Achievement: A writer can achieve pathos using metaphor, simile, passionate delivery, or personal stories.

  • Narrative (Story): This is the most common way to convey an emotional appeal. Narrative turns abstract logic into something present and palpable. The writer's values, beliefs, and understandings are implicit in the story and imaginative impact.

  • Impact: Pathos refers to the power with which a message moves an audience toward a decision or action by appealing to sympathy, pity, patriotism, etc.

  • Evaluative Question: Does the writer make you feel any type of emotion that sways you in a way that will lead you to believe his or her argument?

Rhetorical and Logical Fallacies (Common Strategies)

• General Definition: Problematic strategies involving questionable language and reasoning used to manipulate readers. These should be rejected by the reader.

• 1) Non sequitur (does not follow):

  • Definition: A lack of perceivable rational connection between a statement and the inference (claim) drawn from it.

  • Example: ‐This man keeps chickens in his yard; he surely is a murderer.‐

• 2) Sweeping generalization:

  • Definition: A conclusion that makes claims much broader than the presented evidence or premises can support.

  • Example: ‐Three murders were reported in the local news last weekend; no one should feel safe anywhere.‐

• 3) Post hoc ergo propter hoc (after this, so because of this):

  • Definition: The incorrect assumption that because one event followed another in a sequence, the first event caused the second.

  • Example: ‐After the university raised its tuition fees, average GPA went up; so that is one benefit of the new fee structure.‐

• 4) Ad hominem (to the person):

  • Definition: An irrelevant attack on the individual proposing an argument rather than addressing the argument itself.

  • Example: ‐Smith says that the new military strategy has turned this war around, but he’s a war profiteer, so he’ll say anything to keep our troops overseas.‐

• 5) Straw person/Straw man:

  • Definition: Misrepresenting an opponent's argument in a reductive, oversimplified way to make it seem unintelligent and easy to refute.

  • Example: ‐Jones seems to think that taxing everyone to death is a good way to stimulate the economy. Are you kidding me?‐

• 6) Bandwagon:

  • Definition: Arguing for an idea based on the assertion that everyone (or a significant number of people) agrees with it.

  • Example: ‐Opinion polls show that $64\%$ of Americans disapprove of this President’s policies; those policies therefore need to be changed.‐

• 7) Loaded language:

  • Definition: Use of emotionalized or evaluative language that is out of proportion to the evidence, making the implied judgment questionable.

  • Example: ‐This new, devious scheme for national health care is just the latest plot to enslave our medical system to godless socialism!‐

More Logical Fallacies (Source: Purdue OWL)

• Slippery Slope:

  • Definition: A conclusion based on the premise that if $A$ happens, eventually through a series of small steps ($B, C, \dots, X, Y$), $Z$ will happen as well. This equates $A$ with $Z$. Therefore, if $Z$ is undesirable, $A$ must be prevented.

  • Example: If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the environment, eventually the government will ban all cars, so we should not ban Hummers. (Error: Equating the banning of Hummers with the banning of all cars).

• Hasty Generalization:

  • Definition: A conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence; rushing to a conclusion before acquiring all relevant facts.

  • Example: ‐Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course.‐

  • Requirement for Fairness: To make a reasonable evaluation, a student should attend several classes, examine the textbook, talk to the professor, or consult former students.

• Genetic Fallacy:

  • Definition: Judging the character, nature, or worth of an idea, person, theory, or institute based solely on its origins.

  • Example: ‐The Volkswagen Beetle is an evil car because it was originally designed by Hitler's army.‐ (Error: Equating the character of an object with the character of its creators).

• Begging the Claim:

  • Definition: The conclusion that the writer needs to prove is already validated within the claim or premise itself.

  • Example: ‐Filthy and polluting coal should be banned.‐ (Error: The claim assumes coal causes enough pollution to warrant a ban by labeling it ‐filthy and polluting‐ before proving it).

• Circular Argument:

  • Definition: Restating the argument as evidence rather than offering actual proof.

  • Example: ‐George Bush is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.‐

  • Requirement for Proof: Evidence such as the use of everyday language, breaking down complex problems, or using humorous stories would be needed to prove the claim.

• Either/or:

  • Definition: Oversimplifying an argument by reducing it to only two choices or sides.

  • Example: ‐We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth.‐ (Error: Ignores intermediate options like cleaner technology, car-sharing, or better community planning).

• Red Herring:

  • Definition: A diversionary tactic to avoid key issues or opposing arguments by switching the subject to a different topic.

  • Example: ‐The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their families?‐ (Error: Switches from food safety to an economic issue).

• Moral Equivalence:

  • Definition: Comparing minor misdeeds to major atrocities, suggesting both are equally immoral.

  • Example: ‐That parking attendant who gave me a ticket is as bad as Hitler.‐ (Error: Compares a person performing their job duties to the horrific actions of Hitler).