America in World War II: Exhaustive Study Notes 1941–1945

Grand Strategy and the Immediate Crisis of World War II

Initial Military Crisis and the Japanese Attack: The United States entered World War II following the attack on Pearl Harbor on December $7, 1941$ , which the text describes as the most "stupefying and humiliating military defeat" in the nation’s history.
The "Get Germany First" Strategy: Despite public outcries, particularly on the Pacific Coast, to "Get Japan first" as a matter of private vengeance, Washington adhered to the ABC- $1$ agreement with the British. * The Logic of the Strategy: If the U.S. diverted its primary strength to the Pacific, Adolf Hitler might crush the Soviet Union and Britain, creating an unconquerable "Fortress Europe." * Objective: Knock out Germany first so Allied forces could then concentrate on Japan. Meanwhile, just enough strength was sent to the Pacific to prevent Japan from "digging in too deeply."
Trading Space for Time: Potential was not yet reality. The U.S. was the mightiest military power on earth potentially, but it faced the "back-breaking" task of retooling for all-out war production while its allies, Britain and the USSR, held the field. * Scientific Threats: There was an imperative haste due to the fear that German scientists might develop secret weapons, such as rocket bombs or atomic arms. * Global Logistics: The U.S. had to feed, clothe, and arm itself while transporting forces to regions as far apart as Britain and Burma, and sending food/munitions to allies from the USSR to Australia.

The Home Front: Unity, Assimilation, and Internment

National Unity: Unlike World War I, national unity was high. American Communists, who had previously denounced the "imperialist" war, clamored for assault on the Axis after Hitler attacked Stalin in $1941$ . Italian and German Americans remained largely loyal.
The Plight of Japanese Americans: A "painful exception" to the lack of witch-hunting was the treatment of approximately $110,000$ Japanese Americans on the Pacific Coast. * Executive Order No. $9066$ : Authorized the War Department to forcibly remove Japanese residents, both aliens and citizens ( $2/3$ were American-born U.S. citizens), to concentration camps. * Causation: Washington feared they might act as saboteurs. The text identifies this as "unnecessary and unfair," driven by post–Pearl Harbor hysteria and long-standing West Coast prejudice. * Financial and Dignity Loss: Internees lost hundreds of millions of dollars in property and earnings. * Korematsu v. U.S. ( $1944$ ): The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the relocation. * Reparations: In $1988$ , the U.S. government officially apologized and approved payments of $\$20,000$ to each camp survivor.
The End of the New Deal: In $1943$ , FDR declared that "Dr. New Deal" was retiring, replaced by "Dr. Win-the-War," acknowledging the dominance of conservative forces in Congress.

Makers of America: The Japanese

Historical Background: * $1853$ : Commodore Matthew Perry ended Japanese isolation. * Meiji Government: Launched industrialization and militarization. A steep land tax drove over $300,000$ farmers off their land. * Migration Patterns: Between $1885$ and $1924$ , roughly $200,000$ Japanese migrated to Hawaii and $180,000$ to the U.S. mainland. * Demographics: Immigrants were often better educated and more literate than European counterparts due to Japan's compulsory education. The government promoted women's migration ("picture brides") to avoid bachelor societies.
Economic Success and Backlash: * Farming: By $1910$ , Japanese farmers produced $70\%$ of California’s strawberries. By $1940$ , they grew $95\%$ of snap beans. * The "Potato King": A Japanese farmer who died in $1926$ with an estate valued at $\$15\,\text{million}$ . * Legal Restrictions: The "Gentlemen’s Agreement" ( $1908$ ) limited migration. In $1913$ , California denied Japanese immigrants the right to own land. * Issei and Nissei: Issei (first generation) were barred from citizenship, so they focused on the Nissei (second generation) reaping benefits of birthright through education.

Mobilizing the Economy and Build-up of the War Machine

War Production Board (WPB): Orchestrated the transition. In $1942$ , military orders exceeded $\$100\,\text{billion}$ . * Production Totals: $40\,\text{billion}$ bullets; $300,000$ aircraft; $76,000$ ships; $86,000$ tanks; $2.6\,\text{million}$ machine guns. * Henry J. Kaiser: Known as "Sir Launchalot" for ship construction; one ship was assembled in $14$ days.
Resource Management: * Rubber: When Malaya/Dutch East Indies were lost, the U.S. imposed a national speed limit and gasoline rationing. $51$ synthetic-rubber plants were built. * Agriculture: Farmers produced billion-bushel wheat harvests in $1944$ and $1945$ through heavy investment in machinery despite losing workers to the draft.
Economic Regulations: * Office of Price Administration (OPA): Curbed inflation through regulations and rationing (meat, butter). * War Labor Board (WLB): Imposed wage ceilings. * Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act (June $1943$ ): Authorized government seizure of industries plagued by strikes (e.g., coal mines, railroads). Strikers against government-operated industries faced criminal charges.
Manpower and Women: * Armed Forces: Enlisted $15\,\text{million}$ men and $216,000$ women (WAACs, WAVES, SPARs). * Braceros: An $1942$ agreement with Mexico brought thousands of agricultural workers across the border. * Rosie the Riveter: Over $6\,\text{million}$ women entered the workforce; over half had never worked for wages before. The government set up $3,000$ day-care centers.

Wartime Migrations and Social Tension

Demographic Shifts: * The South received nearly $\$6\,\text{billion}$ in defense contracts, seeding the "Sunbelt." * The Great Migration: $1.6\,\text{million}$ African Americans left the South in the $1940\text{s}$ for war jobs in the North and West.
Black Militancy and Civil Rights: * A. Philip Randolph: Threatened a "Negro March on Washington" in $1941$ to demand equal opportunities. * Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC): Established by FDR to monitor the executive order forbidding discrimination in defense industries. * CORE: The Congress of Racial Equality was founded in $1942$ . * The Double V: Slogan for victory over dictators abroad and racism at home. * Mechanical Cotton Picker ( $1944$ ): Did the work of $50$ people at $1/8$ the cost, accelerating the exodus of Black tenant farmers to the North.
Native Americans: $25,000$ served. "Code talkers" (Comanches in Europe, Navajos in the Pacific) transmitted messages in native languages that the Axis could not crack.
Race Riots: * Zoot-Suit Riots ( $1943$ ): Attacks on Mexican/Mexican American youths by Anglo sailors in Los Angeles. * Detroit ( $1943$ ): A riot killed $25$ Black and $9$ white individuals.

The Economic Cost of Victory

GNP Growth: Vaulted from less than $\$100\,\text{billion}$ in $1940$ to more than $\$200\,\text{billion}$ in $1945$ .
War Costs: The total bill was over $\$330\,\text{billion}$ (ten times the cost of WWI).
Financing: Income taxes were expanded (rates up to $90\%$ ); only $2/5$ of the cost was paid from current revenue.
National Debt: Skyrocketed from $\$49\,\text{billion}$ ( $1941$ ) to $\$259\,\text{billion}$ ( $1945$ ). At high gear, the war cost $\$10\,\text{million}$ an hour.

The Pacific Theater: Defeat to Midway

Japanese Advances: Rapid conquest of Guam, Wake, Hong Kong, British Malaya, and the Dutch East Indies.
The Philippines and Bataan: American forces under General Douglas MacArthur withdrew to the Bataan Peninsula. * Bataan Death March: Following surrender in April $1942$ , prisoners were subjected to an $80$ -mile march to POW camps. * Corregidor: Fell on May $6, 1942$ .
Turning Points: * Battle of the Coral Sea (May $1942$ ): First naval battle where all fighting was done by carrier-based aircraft; fleets never saw each other. * Battle of Midway (June $3-6, 1942$ ): Admiral Chester W. Nimitz and Admiral Raymond A. Spruance destroyed four Japanese carriers. This was a pivotal victory that halted Japan's juggernaut.
Leapfrogging Strategy: Rather than taking every fortified island, the U.S. bypassed ("island hopped") heavily fortified posts, captured nearby islands to set up airfields, and neutralized the enemy via bombing. * The Marianas: Taken in July/August $1944$ . Included the "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot," where the new Hellcat fighter and proximity fuses destroyed $250$ Japanese planes.

The European Front: North Africa, Italy, and D-Day

Battle of the Atlantic: German "wolf packs" of submarines sank over $500$ merchant ships in the first ten months of $1942$ . The tide turned in spring $1943$ due to radar and the cracking of German "Enigma" codes.
Turning Points on Land: * El Alamein (Oct $1942$ ): British General Montgomery drove Rommel back from Egypt to Tunisia. * Stalingrad (Sept $1942$ ): Russians stopped the German advance; a counteroffensive regained $2/3$ of Soviet territory by late $1943$ .
The Second Front Controversy: Stalin demanded a second front to divert Germany. The British preferred the "soft underbelly" of the Mediterranean. * Operation Torch: Invasion of North Africa (Nov $1942$ ) led by Dwight D. Eisenhower. * Casablanca Conference (Jan $1943$ ): FDR and Churchill agreed to invade Sicily and demand "unconditional surrender."
Italian Campaign: Sicily fell (Aug $1943$ ); Mussolini was deposed. Italy surrendered in Sept $1943$ , but German troops resisted stubbornly. Rome was finally taken on June $4, 1944$ .
D-Day (June $6, 1944$ ): * Teheran Conference (Nov $1943$ ): The "Big Three" (Stalin, FDR, Churchill) met for the first time. * The Invasion: Under Eisenhower, Allied forces landed at French Normandy. * Liberation: General George S. Patton led armored lunges across France. Paris was liberated in August $1944$ .

The End of the Thousand-Year Reich

The Election of $1944$ : FDR (Democrat) vs. Thomas E. Dewey (Republican). FDR won primarily because the war was going well. Harry S Truman was the new VP.
Battle of the Bulge (Dec $1944$ ): Hitler's last-gasp offensive in the Ardennes Forest aimed at Antwerp. The $101\text{st}$ Airborne stood firm at Bastogne ("Nuts").
The Holocaust: American troops reaching Germany in April $1945$ discovered concentration camps where $6\,\text{million}$ Jews had been murdered.
The Fall of Berlin: Soviets reached Berlin in April $1945$ . Hitler committed suicide on April $30, 1945$ .
Death of FDR: Franklin Roosevelt died of a cerebral hemorrhage on April $12, 1945$ ; Truman took the helm.
V-E Day: Germany surrendered unconditionally on May $7, 1945$ .

The Atomic End of the Pacific War

Closing in on Japan: * Leyte Gulf (Oct $1944$ ): The greatest naval battle of all time. Japan lost $60$ ships; its navy was finished. * Iwo Jima (March $1945$ ): Captured at a cost of $4,000$ American dead. * Okinawa (April–June $1945$ ): Cost $50,000$ American casualties; Japanese kamikazes sank over $30$ ships.
The Manhattan Project: * Early $1940$ : FDR, spurred by Albert Einstein, authorized research. The project cost nearly $\$2\,\text{billion}$ . * July $16, 1945$ : First atomic device detonated near Alamogordo, New Mexico.
Atomic Bombings: * Potsdam Conference (July $1945$ ): Issued an ultimatum: surrender or be destroyed. * Hiroshima (Aug $6, 1945$ ): $180,000$ people killed, wounded, or missing. $70,000$ died instantaneously. * Nagasaki (Aug $9, 1945$ ): $80,000$ people killed or missing.
Surrender: On August $10$ , Japan sued for peace on the condition Hirohito remains emperor. Official ceremonies took place on the battleship Missouri on September $2, 1945$ (V-J Day).

Questions & Discussion: The Ethics of the Atomic Bomb

Accusation of Racism: Some critics argue the bombs were used against Japan because they were non-white.
The Cold War Logic (Gar Alperovitz): Argument that the attacks were the first salvos of the Cold War, intended to intimidate the Soviet Union and exclude them from postwar Asia.
The Counter-Argument (Richard Rhodes): The project was a race against the Germans; planners always assumed the bomb would be used at the earliest moment to save lives from a conventional invasion.
The Decision: Martin J. Sherwin and Barton J. Bernstein argue the "decision" to use the bomb was actually made in $1942$ when the U.S. committed to a crash program. By $1945$ , its use was automatic and unquestioned by leadership.
Civilian Targets: The deeper moral question involves the decision by all combatants (British, German, Japanese, American) to designate civilian populations as legitimate targets (e.g., the firebombing of Tokyo).