Britain negotiated independence for the Gold Coast, which was combined with former British Togoland to form Ghana.
Ghana was the first sub-Saharan African country to gain independence in the 20th century (1957).
- The new country was smaller in area than the historic kingdom with the same name.
Negotiations leading to independence were supported by the United Nations.
Kwame Nkrumah became Ghana's first president in 1960.
Nkrumah’s Policies and Ideals
Influenced by ideas from modern nation-states, Ghanaian nationalism developed.
Nkrumah learned nationalism and created a narrative emphasizing the country’s historical glory and traditions.
- Established national symbols: a currency, flag, anthem, museums, monuments.
Initiated public works and development projects, such as hydroelectric plants.
Critics accused Nkrumah of creating significant national debt and allowing corruption, a pattern seen in later African dictatorships.
In 1964, he claimed dictatorial powers and established a one-party state with himself as the leader.
Pan-Africanism
Nkrumah strongly advocated for Pan-Africanism, which has evolved over time:
- Initially suggested returning slaves to Africa (19th-century abolitionists).
- In the late 20th century, it became a unifying cultural movement rejecting colonial intervention.
Nkrumah founded the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963.
His government was overthrown in a military coup in 1966, leading to the expulsion of many foreigners from Ghana.
Peaceful transfer of civilian power in Ghana did not occur until 2000.
Algeria's Struggle for Independence
The French colony of Algeria faced more violence than Ghana prior to independence.
Rising social, political, and economic crises in Algeria led to protests.
French government reacted with repressive measures and violence.
Many Algerians demanded independence post-World War II, launching the Algerian War for Independence in 1954.
The National Liberation Front (FLN)
The FLN led the independence movement, employing guerrilla tactics against the French military presence about 500,000 strong.
The violence claimed the lives of hundreds of thousands of Algerians, with numerous events of torture documented by historians.
Impact on France
The conflict divided France, with the French Communist Party supporting Algerian independence and protests erupting in French cities.
In 1958, President Charles de Gaulle gained broader presidential powers, aiming to navigate Algeria’s path to independence.
A referendum was held to gain approval for his plans.
Independence and Aftermath
Algeria gained independence in 1962, but violence erupted again, resulting in the exodus of pro-French Algerians and settlers, creating social issues in France.
The first president of the new Algerian Republic was overthrown in 1965, and the National Liberation Front maintained a one-party state and socialist authoritarian government.
The Algerian Civil War
Resurfaced in 1991 due to discontent with one-party rule when the Islamic Salvation Front won elections that were subsequently canceled.
The civil war lasted until 2002, marked by extensive violence and political strife.
President Abdelaziz Bouteflika was chosen by the army in 1999; his tenure saw some attempts at inclusion and reforms amidst ongoing violence.
Comparison Between Ghana and Algeria
Both nations faced challenges under military rule; Ghana transitioned to a multiparty state in 1992, while Algeria struggled with religious tensions and state repression.
Kofi Annan, a Ghanaian leader, became UN Secretary General in 1997, showcasing Ghanaian stability compared to Algeria’s continued instability and division, particularly with the rise of Islamist movements.
Negotiated Independence in French West Africa
France negotiated independence for various colonies in West Africa, including Senegal and Ivory Coast.
French control was maintained through indirect rule, relying on local leaders, but by the late 1950s, many colonies began to assert independence.
Decolonization in Vietnam
After WWII, France's attempt to reoccupy Vietnam led to a communist-led war of independence against French colonial rule.
The war ended with a peace treaty in 1954, dividing the country into North and South Vietnam with planned elections that did not occur, leading to further conflict.
Independence Movements in Egypt
Egypt nominally gained independence from the British in 1922, maintaining British troops under the 1936 treaty.
Nasser’s Leadership
In 1952, General Gamal Abdel Nasser became a key figure in establishing the Republic of Egypt after overthrowing the monarchy.
Nasser’s policies included land reform and nationalization of industries but led to international tensions, notably through the Suez Crisis in 1956 when he nationalized the canal.
Civil War and Governance in Nigeria
Nigeria gained independence in 1960 but faced ethnic tensions leading to the Biafran Civil War starting in 1967 when the Igbos sought independence.
Following the war, Nigeria faced instability with continued military coups until a return to civilian rule in 1999.
Ongoing Socioeconomic Struggles
The Nigerian constitution allows dual legal systems; however, ethnic tensions persist, especially over oil resource management in the Niger Delta.
Canada’s Experience with Nationalism in Quebec
Quebec’s struggles for independence are tied to its French heritage and the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s.
Political movements and a referendum in 1995 demonstrated the complexities of Quebec nationalism.
Key Terms by Theme
Government: Leaders (Kwame Nkrumah, Charles de Gaulle, Ho Chi Minh), Wars and Conflicts (Algerian War for Independence).
Society: Pro-Independence Organizations (Muslim League, Organization of African Unity).