Motivation

Theories of Motivation

  • Motivation: The force that moves people to behave, think, and feel as they do.

    • Energizes, directs, and sustains behavior.

Theories of Motivation Overview

Evolutionary Approach

  • Emphasizes the role of instincts in motivation.

    • Instincts: Inborn patterns of behavior biologically determined rather than learned.

    • Assumes people are governed by instincts similar to those of animals.

Drive Reduction Theory

  • Behavior arises from physiological needs causing internal drives.

    • Need (physiological): A deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce it.

    • Drive (psychological): Motivational tension or arousal due to need.

      • Goal: Reduce drive to achieve homeostasis.

        • Homeostasis: Body's tendency to maintain equilibrium or a steady internal state.

Optimum Arousal Theory

  • Suggests an optimal level of arousal is necessary for goal attainment.

    • Yerkes-Dodson Law: Performance is best under moderate arousal conditions rather than low or high.

Internal Regulation

Temperature Regulation

  • Homeostasis: Maintains certain body variables within a fixed range.

    • Negative Feedback: Processes reducing discrepancies from the set point.

  • Allostasis: Adaptive way the body changes set points in response to life changes or environmental stimuli.

Basal Metabolism

  • Energy used to maintain a constant body temperature while at rest.

  • Ectothermic/Poikilothermic Animals:

    • Do not regulate temperature physiologically (body temperature matches environment).

  • Endothermic/Homeothermic Animals:

    • Use physiological mechanisms to maintain a constant body temperature over varying environmental temperatures.

Physiological Changes vs. Behavioral Changes

  • Physiological Changes: Regulate internal states.

  • Behavioral Changes: Adapt behavior to manage environmental challenges.

Brain Mechanisms in Temperature Regulation

  • Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus (POA/AH): Monitors body temperature using information from skin and internal receptors.

    • Fever: An allostasis mechanism with increased set point for body temperature.

Water Regulation

Thirst

  • Different species have unique strategies for fluid maintenance depending on their circumstances.

    • Example: Beavers drink plenty of water; desert animals conserve water.

Types of Thirst

  • Osmotic Thirst:

    • Triggered by eating salty foods; differences in osmotic pressure between cells.

  • Hypovolemic Thirst:

    • Triggered by fluid loss from bleeding, diarrhea, etc.; linked to sodium-specific hunger.

Digestive System and Food Regulation

  • Influences food selection and satiety.

    • Enzyme lactase in baby mammals aids in food selection during weaning.

  • Oral Factors: Taste contributes to satiety but not solely sufficient.

  • Stomach & Intestines: Stretching of stomach walls triggers satiety signals; CCK hormone release limits meal size.

Regulation of Feeding Hormones

  • Leptin: Produced by fat cells, monitors fat levels in the body.

    • More fat cells → more leptin.

    • Affected in individuals with the obese gene (lack leptin production).

Brain Regions Involved in Feeding Regulation

  • Arcuate Nucleus of Hypothalamus: Controls appetite, responds to hunger and satiety signals.

  • Paraventricular Nucleus of Hypothalamus: Signals satiety; damage leads to overeating.

  • Lateral Hypothalamus: Facilitates eating behavior; damage leads to refusal of food and water.

  • Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH): Damage causes overeating; increased insulin production leads to more fat storage.

Eating Disorders Overview

Types of Eating Disorders

  • Obesity:

    • Genetic component, influenced by environment.

  • Anorexia Nervosa:

    • Severe food intake restriction, fear of gaining weight, common in young women.

  • Bulimia Nervosa:

    • Binge-purge cycles, often associated with anxiety and depression.

  • Binge Eating Disorder:

    • Recurrent eating episodes with a feeling of lack of control; common among obese individuals.

Approaches to Motivation in Everyday Life

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs

  • Needs must be satisfied in sequence; self-actualization is the highest motivation.

Self-Determination Theory

  • Three Basic Needs:

    1. Competence: Self-efficacy, mastery, success expectations.

    2. Relatedness: Warm relationships with others, need for belonging.

    3. Autonomy: Independence and self-reliance.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

  • Intrinsic Motivation: Fulfillment from engaging in the activity for its own sake.

  • Extrinsic Motivation: Engagement motivated by rewards or consequences.

Self-Regulation and Temptation

  • Self-Regulation: Control over behavior to achieve goals.

  • Goal Setting: Specific, moderately challenging objectives help achieve long-term and short-term purposes.

  • Resisting Temptation:

    • The ability to delay gratification enhances self-control; distraction may assist in resisting immediate pleasures.