NATURE OF MATTER

• Matter has mass and occupies space.
• Exists in three states: solid, liquid, gas.
• Solid: definite shape, fixed volume.
• Liquid: takes shape of container, fixed volume.
• Gas: no definite shape or volume.

KINETIC THEORY

• Matter comprises small, discrete particles.
• Diffusion is the movement from high to low concentration.
• Factors affecting diffusion: temperature, particle size, concentration.
    - Higher temperature increases diffusion rate by increasing particle motion.

BONDING AND STRUCTURE OF MATTER

• Atoms bond to achieve full outer shells.
• Types of bonding:
    - Ionic: transfer of electrons between metals and nonmetals.
    - Covalent: sharing of electrons between nonmetals.
    - Metallic: delocalised electrons among metal ions.

ACIDS, BASES, AND ALKALIS

• Acids: produce H+ ions in solution, e.g. HCl.
• Bases: oxides and hydroxides of metals.
• Alkalis: soluble bases that produce OH- ions in solution.
• Neutralization: acid + base → salt + water.

SOLUTIONS AND CRYSTALS

• Solution formed when solute dissolves in solvent.
• Aqueous solutions: solute in water.
• Crystallisation: formation of solid crystals from a saturated solution.

SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

• Methods include filtration, decantation, centrifugation, distillation, and chromatography.
• Filtration: separates solids from liquids using a filter.
• Distillation: separates based on differing boiling points.
• Chromatography: separates mixtures based on solubility.

LANGUAGE OF CHEMISTRY

• Elements: pure substances, cannot be broken down.
• Compounds: chemical combinations of elements.
• Mixtures: physical combinations, retain individual properties.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

• Organic compounds contain carbon.
• Hydrocarbons are divided into saturated (alkanes) and unsaturated (alkenes).
• Isomerism: compounds with the same formula but different structures.