cornell note yani prelims to midterms
The Science of Psychology
The History of Psychology
Definition: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Founding: Established as a science in 1879 in Germany by Wundt; introduced objective introspection.
Structuralism: Brought to America by Titchener, which later faded.
Functionalism: Proposed by William James, focusing on how the mind allows adaptation.
Contributions from Minorities: Despite racism and prejudice, many early psychologists made significant contributions.
Influence: Functionalism has impacted modern fields like educational, evolutionary, and industrial/organizational psychology.
Early Approaches in Psychology
Gestalt Psychology: Developed by Wertheimer, focusing on sensation and perception as an organized whole.
Psychoanalysis: Founded by Freud, emphasizing the role of the unconscious mind in controlling behavior.
Behaviorism: Promoted by Watson, focusing on observable stimuli/responses, demonstrated by conditioning a baby to fear a white rat.
Counterconditioning: Showcased by Mary Cover Jones, who reversed learned phobias.
Modern Perspectives in Psychology
Neo-Freudianism: Modern interpretations by figures like Anna Freud, Jung, and Adler.
Operant Conditioning: Introduced by Skinner, focusing on voluntary behavior and the concept of reinforcement.
Humanism: Developed by Maslow and Rogers, highlighting free will and human growth potential.
Cognitive Psychology: Examines processes like memory, language, and problem-solving.
Biopsychology: Studies the biological foundations of behavior (hormones, genetics, etc.).
Evolutionary Perspective: Analyzes behavior through the lens of survival and adaptation.
Types of Professionals in Psychology
Psychologists: Hold doctoral degrees, involved in counseling, teaching, and research across various specializations (clinical, counseling, etc.).
Psychiatrists: Medical doctors diagnosing and treating mental disorders.
Psychiatric Social Workers: Trained in the environmental influences of mental illness.
Counselors: May require only a master’s degree in specific psychological fields.
Scientific Research
Steps in the Scientific Approach
Goals of Psychology: Description, explanation, prediction, and control.
Five Steps: 1) Perceiving the question 2) Forming a hypothesis 3) Testing the hypothesis 4) Drawing conclusions 5) Reporting results.
Methods of Describing Behavior
Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in natural environments with limited control.
Laboratory Observation: Controlled setting observations.
Case Studies: Detailed examination of a single subject; non-generalizable.
Surveys: Standardized questions; potential bias in responses.
Correlational Research
Definition: A statistical method to identify relationships between variables.
Positive vs. Negative Correlation: Positive indicates both variables increase; negative indicates one increases while the other decreases.
Limitation: Correlation does not imply causation.
Experimental Design
Experiment: Controlled variable manipulation to determine cause and effect.
Independent Variable: Manipulated variable; dependent is the measured outcome.
Control Group: Receives placebo or no intervention.
Random Assignment: Reduces individual differences effects.
Study Types: Single-blind (subjects unaware) and double-blind (both subjects and experimenters unaware).
Ethical Guidelines for Research
Human Research Ethics: Participant welfare, informed consent, deception justification, withdrawal rights, confidentiality, debriefing, and correcting harm.
Animal Research: Often necessary as models for human behavior; easier to control.
Developing Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking: Using reasoned judgment when evaluating information.
Criteria for Critical Thinking: 1) Few concepts remain untested 2) Evidence varies in quality 3) Expertise does not equal truth 4) Importance of open-mindedness.
The Biological Perspective
Neurons and Nervous System
Components of Neurons: Dendrites (input), soma (cell body), axons (send messages), axon terminals (neurotransmitter release).
Function of Glial Cells: Support and insulate neurons, influencing cognition.
Myelin: Insulates axons, speeding up neural signals.
Action Potential: Neuron shifts from negative to positive charge upon stimulation.
Brain and Spinal Cord Interaction
Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord; spinal cord transmits messages and controls reflexes.
Neuroplasticity: Brain's ability to adapt structure/function from experiences.
Nervous System Divisions
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Somatic (voluntary muscles) and autonomic (involuntary functions).
Autonomic System: Sympathetic (fight/flight) and parasympathetic (rest/digest).
Endocrine Glands
Pituitary Gland: Known as the master gland; regulates other glands.
Various Glands: Pineal (melatonin), thyroid (metabolism), adrenal (stress response), pancreas (blood sugar levels), gonads (sex hormones).
Overview of Brain Functionality
Brain Study Techniques
Lesioning and Stimulation: Understanding brain functions through destruction or stimulation of brain areas.
Neuroimaging: EEG, CT, MRI, fMRI, PET scans for analyzing brain structure and activity.
Brain Structures and Functions
Hindbrain: Medulla (vital functions), pons (sleep/coordination), cerebellum (motor control).
Limbic System: Includes thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala; involved in emotions/memory.
Cortex: Divided into lobes (occipital, parietal, temporal, frontal) processing sensory information and voluntary movement.
Sensation and Perception
Sensation Process
Activation: Receptors in various body parts respond to stimuli (light, sound, etc.).
Thresholds: Absolute threshold (minimum stimulus intensity) and just noticeable difference (JND, detection level).
Visual Processing
Eye Structure: Light travels through cornea, pupil, and lens to retina; processed by rods and cones.
Visual Pathway: Transfers information to brain's visual cortex.
Consciousness and Sleep
Levels of Consciousness
Common and Altered States: Awareness levels vary; includes controlled and automatic processes.
Sleep Cycle: Circadian rhythm influenced by biological factors; includes different sleep stages (N1-N3, REM).
Learning and Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Key Elements: UCS, UCR, CS, CR; processes involved in learning through association.
Applications: Phobias, taste aversions, and drug dependencies are examples.
Operant Conditioning
Influencers: Thorndike’s Law of Effect and Skinner’s reinforcement theory.
Reinforcers: Primary vs. secondary; positive vs. negative; shaping and extinction concepts.
Memory
Memory Processes
Definition: Memory as an active system involving encoding, storage, retrieval.
Types: Short-term and long-term; declarative and nondeclarative forms.
Retrieval and Forgetting
Retrieval Cues: Involvement of context and state-dependent learning.
Forgetting Factors: Decay theories, interference, and memory trace decay discussed.
Cognitive Processes
Thinking and Problem Solving
Processes: Involves mental images, concepts, and decision-making methods (mechanical, algorithms).
Barriers: Functional fixedness, confirmation bias, and creative ideas discussed.
Intelligence
Definitions and Theories: Includes various theories (Spearman, Gardner, Sternberg) and intelligence measurement methods.
Development Across the Lifespan
Research Methods in Developmental Psychology
Types: Longitudinal, cross-sectional, cross-sequential.
Heredity vs. Environment: The interplay between genetics and the environment in growth.
Stages of Development
Prenatal, Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence, Adulthood: Each stage has distinct physical, cognitive, and emotional characteristics and challenges.
Motivation and Emotion
Motivation Theories
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic: Definitions and examples; drive-reduction theories and Maslow's hierarchy discussed.
Emotional Elements: Characteristics of emotion including physical arousal and theories surrounding emotion (James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, etc.).