Comprehensive Study Notes on Religious Studies and Global Faith Systems of Belief

Fundamental Concepts of Religious Studies

• Main Object of Study: The primary focus of religious studies is religion and religious phenomena as a whole, rather than just political processes, philosophical ideas, or singular ritual practices.
• Scientific Classification: The field of religious studies is categorized within the Social and Humanitarian Sciences, distinguishing it from natural, technical, or exact sciences.
• Subject Matter: The discipline investigates the origin, essence, and development of religion, as well as its historical evolution.
• Primary Goals:
  • The formation of scientific knowledge about religion.
  • Analyzing the role of religion in society.
  • Evaluating religion through a scientific-neutral and sociocultural lens.
• Fundamental Approaches:
  • Scientific Approach: This is considered the fundamental method, opposing ideological, dogmatic, or worship-based perspectives.
  • Methodology: The field utilizes historical, sociological, and comparative methods to analyze data.
  • Principle of Impartiality: The main principle is scientific impartiality, moving away from religious bias or dogmatism.
• Distinction from Theology: Religious studies differs from theology primarily in its attitude toward religion; while theology is based on faith and the protection of a specific confession, religious studies maintains a scientific, neutral position.
• Social Significance:
  • Fostering religious tolerance and stability in society.
  • Creating immunity against religious extremism.
  • Expanding the scientific worldview of students rather than training religious leadership.
  • Identifying the functions of religion in society and its impact on culture.

Judaism: History, Texts, and Beliefs

• Origin and Timeline: Judaism originated in the ancient borders of Palestine. It began to take shape during the $2nd$ millennium BC.
• Core Theology: It is a strictly monotheistic religion. The name of God in Judaism is Yahweh.
• Holy People and Prophets:
  • The "holy people" are identified as the Bani Isroil (Children of Israel).
  • Ibrahim (a.s.): Recognized as the first father-prophet.
  • Musa (a.s.) (Moses): The most important prophet; he saved the Children of Israel from Pharaoh (Fir’aun).
  • Dovud (a.s.) (David): Recognized as both a prophet and a king.
• Sacred Texts:
  • Torah: The main sacred book, revealed to Musa (a.s.). It consists of $5$ books written in the Hebrew language.
  • Talmud: A collection of religious explanations and laws.
  • Halakha: The system of religious laws governing life.
• Rituals and Practices:
  • Shabbat (Saturday): The weekly holy day; working ($Ishlash$) is strictly prohibited.
  • Circumcision: A mandatory obligation for boys.
  • Kosher: Dietary and purity rules.
  • Holidays:
    • Passover: Commemorates the Exodus from Egypt.
    • Yom Kippur: A day dedicated to repentance and forgiveness.
• Holy Places: The city of Quddus (Jerusalem) is the central holy city. The place of worship is called a Synagogue.
• Ethics: Centralized around the Ten Commandments (O’n amr) given to Musa (a.s.), emphasizing law, justice, and obedience.

Buddhism: Philosophical-Ethical Framework

• Origins: Originated in India.
• The Founder: Siddhartha Gautama, born into the Kshatriya (warrior/noble) social class. He is described as a person who left the family of kings (Shohlar) and renounced the world to seek enlightenment. He was called "Buddha" only after attaining knowledge.
• The Concept of Buddha: The word means "Having attained knowledge."
• Core Concepts:
  • Nirvana: The ultimate goal, meaning liberation from suffering ($Azob-uqubat$).
  • Suffering: Life is characterized by suffering, caused by desire, craving, and ignorance.
  • Four Noble Truths: Proclaimed by Buddha, these truths focus on the reality of life and suffering.
  • Noble Eightfold Path: The path of moral and spiritual development to reach liberation.
• Metaphysics:
  • Karma: The law of consequences of actions.
  • Reincarnation: The belief in rebirth.
  • Theology: Buddhism is considered non-theistic; the concept of God is not central to the teaching.
• Monastic Life: Monks lead a world-renouncing ($Tarki dunyo$) life. Compassion ($Compassion$) and patience are the bases of moral life.
• Historical Spread: King Ashoka (Emperor Ashoka) contributed significantly to the initial spread in Southern and Eastern Asia.
• Sacred Texts: The Tripitaka, which means "Three Baskets."

Zoroastrianism: Dualism and Purity

• Origins and Era: Emerged in Iran during the $6th-5th$ century BC. The founder was Zardusht (Zoroaster).
• Cosmology: Based on the struggle between two forces:
  • Ahura Mazda: The God of wisdom and light.
  • Ahriman: The God of evil, oppression, and darkness.
• Fundamental Ethics: The motto for human life is: "Good thoughts, good words, good deeds" ($Xush niyat, xush kalom, xush amal$).
• Sacred Text: The Avesta, written in the Avestan (Pahlavi) language.
• Worship and Symbolism:
  • Fire: Represents purity and divine light. It is not worshipped as a god but as a symbol of truth.
  • Atashkadeh: The fire temple where worship is performed.
  • Atash-Namayesh: The term for communal worship.
• Social and Natural Laws:
  • High importance is placed on truth ($Truth$), justice ($Justice$), and keeping nature (earth, water, fire) clean.
  • Animals must be respected.
  • Follows a Solar calendar.
• Eschatology: Belief in a reward for good deeds and punishment for bad deeds after death. Good is expected to ultimately conquer evil.

Christianity: Doctrine and Organization

• Origins: Emerged in the territory of Palestine in the $1st$ century AD, based on Judaism.
• Founder: Jesus Christ (Iso Masih), viewed as the Son of God. His mission focused on love and forgiveness.
• Holy Book: The Bible, consisting of two parts:
  • Old Testament: The first part.
  • New Testament: Describes the life and teachings of Jesus. Originally written in Hebrew and Greek.
• Key Beliefs:
  • Crucifixion: Viewed as a sacrifice for human sins.
  • Trinity: The doctrine of God as three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (Ota, O‘g‘il va Muqaddas Ruh).
  • Resurrection: Commemorated during Easter.
• Practices:
  • Baptism: Purification with water.
  • Eucharist (Offering): Ceremony of holy bread and wine.
  • Worship Day: Sunday.
• Organization and Branches:
  • The church (Cherkov) is the place of worship led by a cleric.
  • Catholicism: Led by the Pope.
  • Orthodoxy: Led by a Patriarch.
  • Protestantism: Emerged in the $16th$ century in opposition to Catholic Church politics; led by Pastors.
• Major Holidays: Christmas ($Christmas$) celebrating the birth of Jesus, and Easter celebrating his resurrection.

Islam: History, Sources, and Pillars

• Origins: Emerged in the Arabian Peninsula in the $7th$ century ($VII$ century) in a society described as being in the Jahiliyyah (ignorance) period.
• Key Events:
  • Hijra: The migration of the Prophet from Mecca to Medina in $622$ AD. This date marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
  • First Mosque: Built in Qubo’.
• The Prophet: Muhammad (s.a.v.), of the Quraysh tribe. Born in $571$ AD in Mecca. Received the first revelation at age $40$ in the cave of Hira through the angel Gabriel (Jibrail).
  • Father: Abdullah.
  • Mother: Amina.
• Sacred Sources:
  • Quran: The word of God, revealed over $23$ years in Arabic. Contains $114$ chapters (suras).
  • Sunnah: The second source, consisting of Hadiths (records of the Prophet's words and actions).
  • Ijmā‘: Consensus or agreement among scholars.
  • Qiyās: Analogical reasoning or comparison of similar issues.
• The Five Pillars:
  1. Shahada: Declaration of faith.
  2. Salah (Prayer): $5$ obligatory daily prayers.
  3. Zakat: Almsgiving to the needy.
  4. Sawm (Fasting): Observed during the month of Ramadan.
  5. Hajj: Pilgrimage to Mecca.
• Ethics: Calls for halal (permitted) behavior, goodness, and the rejection of violence.

Cyberspace and Modern Religious Processes

• Cyberspace definition: Refers to the internet and digital information space. The term was introduced by William Gibson in his $1984$ work "Neuromancer."
• Social Aspect: Manuel Castells introduced the concept to social sciences, associating it with the "Network Society."
• Religion in Cyberspace: Includes religious ideas, blogs, and activities online. It serves as a medium for information dissemination and interfaith dialogue.
• Threats:
  • Spread of religious extremism and radicalization via social networks.
  • Use of "cyber masks" to promote terrorism.
  • Targeting of youth due to a lack of religious literacy.
• Solutions: Education and upbringing are the most effective ways to protect youth from cyber-religious threats.

New Religious Movements and Sects

• Context: These movements increased significantly in the $20th$ century ($XX$ asrda) due to social, cultural, and spiritual crises.
• Sect Characteristics:
  • Groups separating from main religious streams.
  • Absolute submission to a charismatic leader.
  • Strictly limited and controlled information.
  • Psychological impact and manipulation of consciousness.
  • Financial activities managed under leader supervision rather than transparently.
• Terminology:
  • Missionary Work: Activities to promote a religion widely.
  • Proselytism: Efforts specifically aimed at converting individuals from one faith to another.

Islamic Jurisprudence (Fiqh) and Branches

• Sunnism (Ahli sunna val jamoa): Followers of the Prophet's Sunnah and the majority community. Accounts for about $90\%$ of the global Muslim population. Features $4$ main jurisprudential schools and $7$ main beliefs (e.g., belief in angels).
• Hanafi School (Hanafism):
  • Founded by Abu Hanifa (Imam Abu Hanifa).
  • Historically developed in Central Asia and Iraq during the $9th-10th$ centuries.
  • Known for being practically flexible in social life, trade, and marriage. It emphasizes the use of analogy (qiyas) and consultation (maslahah).
• Shiism (Shia): Derived from "Shiatu Ali" (Supporters of Ali). Focuses on the Imamate (leadership heritage of Ali’s descendants). Concepts include Ismat (infallibility of Imams), G‘aybat (the hidden Imam), and Taqiya (hiding belief for safety).
• Kharijites (Xorijiy): A destructive, extremist group that appeared during the period of "Arbitration" (Battle of Siffin, $657$ AD). Their mistake was "Takfir" (calling sinners disbelievers) and opposing legitimate leadership.

Religious Policy and History in Uzbekistan

• Constitution: Guarantees freedom of conscience. The state is secular (separated from religion).
• Center for Islamic Civilization: Established in Tashkent under the initiative of Shavkat Mirziyoyev ($2018$). It houses the Ancient Osman Manuscript (Quran) and honors scholars like Imam Bukhari, Ibn Sina, and Mirzo Ulughbek.
• Organizations: The Muslim Board of Uzbekistan oversees mosques and religious education.
• Hanafi Prevalence: Widespread in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan.
• Interfaith Reality: More than $10$ different confessions are active, including Orthodoxy (Tashkent and Central Asia Diocese), Catholicism, and Judaism (Bukhara and Tashkent groups).
• Counter-Terrorism Laws:
  • Law "On Combating Terrorism" ($December 15, 2000$).
  • Criminal Code ($1994$).
  • Law against financing of terrorism ($2004$).

Extremism and Terrorism

• Extremism: Radical views and actions that contradict laws. Includes Fundamentalism (returning to original roots) and Fanaticism (blind rejection of others' views).
• Inquisition: A historical example of religious extremism.
• Terrorism: Criminal activity aimed at political goals through fear, violence, and intimidation.
• Modern Groups: Examples include the Muslim Brotherhood (founded $1928$ by Hasan al-Banna) and ISHID (aiming to establish a Caliphate, established $2006$).