Chapter 19 (1914-1920)

Overview and Essential Themes of World War I ($1914$-$1918$)

• World War I served as a watershed moment for the United States, transitioning the nation from a position of neutrality into a global power with extensive international responsibilities.

• The United States entered the conflict in $1917$ after nearly three years of neutrality, with President Woodrow Wilson framing the intervention as a mission to make the world "safe for democracy."

• The war effort required the mobilization of American society at an unprecedented scale, necessitating a massive expansion of the federal government to direct the economy and military.

• Domestic impacts of the war included:     - Massive government expansion and economic transformation.     - New employment opportunities for women and minorities, contrasted with subsequent repression and discrimination.     - Severe constraints on civil liberties through the use of sedition laws and government surveillance.

• International consequences included:     - America's emergence as the world’s primary creditor nation.     - The articulation of Wilson’s Fourteen Points as a vision for a new global order.     - The signing of the Treaty of Versailles, which established terms that would create long-term instability.     - The ultimate rejection of the League of Nations by the U.S. Senate, representing a retreat from Wilsonian internationalism.

American Industrial Dominance and the Foundations of Global Power

• By $1900$, the United States had surpassed Great Britain and other European nations to become the world’s leading industrial power.

• Economic data indicating American dominance included:     - Production of $65\%$ of the world’s petroleum.     - Production of $56\%$ of the world’s copper.     - Production of $39\%$ of the world’s coal.     - Production of $36\%$ of the world’s iron ore.

• By $1914$, the United States was responsible for more than $1/3$ of total global manufactured goods.

• This dominance was fueled by abundant natural resources, a large population base, rapid technological innovation, and highly efficient industrial organization.

• British observer W.T. Stead published "The Americanisation of the World" in $1902$, predicting that American economic prowess would eventually dominate the globe.

• Key American consumer products that captured international markets included telephones, cameras, phonographs, electric streetcars, automobiles, and typewriters.

• Despite industrial dominance, Britain remained the center of world banking and the British pound was the primary currency for international trade; American power was rooted in productivity while British power was financial and imperial.

Progressive Foreign Policy: Big Stick, Dollar, and Moral Diplomacy

• Progressive presidents pursued expansionist agendas to project American influence globally.

• Theodore Roosevelt’s "Big Stick Diplomacy" ($1901$-$1909$):     - Emphasized the use of military power to advance interests, particularly in Latin America.     - Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine ($1904$): Asserted the U.S. right to intervene in Latin American affairs to prevent European interference.     - Panama Canal: Roosevelt intervened in Panama in $1903$ to facilitate its independence from Colombia, allowing for the construction of the canal (completed in $1914$), which shortened transit times for naval and commercial vessels.     - Treaty of Portsmouth ($1905$): Roosevelt brokered the peace between Russia and Japan, demonstrating American diplomatic weight.

• William Howard Taft’s "Dollar Diplomacy":     - Focused on economic intervention by encouraging American investment in foreign nations and using economic leverage as a tool of foreign policy.

• Woodrow Wilson’s "Moral Diplomacy":     - Attempted to base foreign policy on democratic values and self-determination.     - Despite this rhetoric, Wilson authorized military interventions and occupations in Mexico, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic, showing continuity with his predecessors' interventionist styles.

The Challenges of Neutrality and Economic Alignment

• At the war's outbreak in $1914$, President Wilson urged Americans to be "neutral in thought as well as in action."

• Strict neutrality was undermined by deep economic and cultural ties to the Allied powers (Britain and France):     - Trade with Britain and France far exceeded trade with Germany.     - By $1917$, American businesses had sold approximately $\$2\,billion$ in goods to the Allies, while trade with Germany plummeted due to the British naval blockade.     - American banks, led by J.P. Morgan, provided over $\$2\,billion$ in loans to the Allied nations.

• Cultural factors: Many Americans identified with British heritage and perceived German autocracy as a threat to democratic principles.

• As a result, the United States became economically and ideologically invested in an Allied victory, making genuine neutrality structurally impossible.

The Road to War: German Submarine Warfare and Administrative Provocations

• Submarine Warfare (U-boats):     - Germany used submarines to break the British blockade. Unlike traditional naval warfare, submarines relied on surprise attacks and could not warn merchant ships or allow crews to escape safely.     - The Sinking of the Lusitania ($May\,7,\,1915$): A British passenger ship was torpedoed off the coast of Ireland, killing $1,198$ passengers, including $128$ Americans. While Germany claimed the ship carried munitions, American outrage was immense.     - Sussex Pledge ($1916$): Following the sinking of the French steamer Sussex, German leaders promised not to sink passenger ships without warning to avoid U.S. entry into the war.

• Resumption of Unrestricted Submarine Warfare:     - In $February\,1917$, Germany resumed attacks on all ships heading to British ports, calculating they could starve Britain into surrender within $6$ months—before American forces could arrive.

• The Zimmermann Telegram:     - Intercepted by British intelligence and released in $March\,1917$, this telegram from German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmermann to Mexico proposed an alliance against the U.S.     - Germany offered Mexico the return of lost territories—Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico—if Mexico joined the war against America.     - The exposure of this telegram turned American public opinion decisively against Germany and confirmed the perception of German hostility.

American Entry and the Military Dynamics of the Conflict

• Wilson’s War Message:     - On $April\,2,\,1917$, Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war, framing it as a moral crusade to "make the world safe for democracy."     - Congress voted overwhelmingly for war; Jeannette Rankin, the first woman in Congress, was among the few to vote against it.

• The American Expeditionary Force (AEF):     - Commanded by General John J. Pershing, the AEF eventually sent $2\,million$ troops to France.     - Pershing insisted that American forces operate as a distinct army rather than being integrated into French or British units.

• Major Military Engagements in $1918$:     - Battle of Belleau Wood ($June\,1918$): U.S. Marines stopped a German advance toward Paris but suffered heavy casualties.     - Battle of Chateau-Thierry: Another significant engagement proving American combat effectiveness.     - Meuse-Argonne Offensive ($September\,26\,-\,November\,11,\,1918$): The largest American offensive, involving $1.2\,million$ troops. It resulted in over $100,000$ casualties and approximately $26,000$ deaths but succeeded in breaking German defenses.

• Costs of the War:     - The war ended on $November\,11,\,1918$.     - American casualties: approximately $116,000$ deaths and $200,000$ wounded (significantly fewer than European powers but decisive in the final outcome).

Economic Mobilization and the Expansion of Federal Power

• War Industries Board (WIB): Directed by Bernard Baruch, the WIB coordinated industrial production, standardized products, and allocated scarce resources to prioritize military needs.

• Food Administration: Led by Herbert Hoover, it regulated food production and distribution. It relied on voluntary conservation efforts, such as "wheatless Mondays" and "meatless Tuesdays."

• Fuel and Railroad Administrations: The Fuel Administration managed coal and oil supplies, while the Railroad Administration took direct control of the nation's railroads to facilitate war transport.

• Selective Service Act ($May\,1917$): Instituted military conscription; $24\,million$ men registered, and $2.8\,million$ were drafted, bringing total forces to over $4\,million$.

• Financing the War:     - The federal budget more than doubled.     - Liberty Bonds (Victory Bonds): Raised over $\$20\,billion$ through public bond sales.     - Taxation: Income taxes were expanded, with the highest tax rates for the wealthy reaching $77\%$.

The Committee on Public Information and the War for Public Opinion

• The Committee on Public Information (CPI), led by George Creel, was tasked with managing public opinion through extensive propaganda campaigns.

• Techniques of the CPI:     - Distributed millions of pamphlets and posters (e.g., James Montgomery Flagg's "I Want You" poster).     - Four-Minute Men: A group of $75,000$ volunteer speakers who delivered short, patriotic speeches at theaters and civic events.     - Produced propaganda films like "The Kaiser, The Beast of Berlin," which vilified German leadership.

• While the CPI did not enforce formal censorship, it created immense social and professional pressure for journalists and citizens to conform to the government's narrative.

Civil Liberties and the Suppression of Domestic Dissent

• Espionage Act ($June\,1917$): Criminalized interference with military recruitment and the disclosure of military information.

• Sedition Act ($May\,1918$): An amendment that criminalized "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language" regarding the government, Constitution, flag, or military.

• Eugene Debs: The Socialist Party leader was sentenced to $10$ years in prison for an antiwar speech in Canton, Ohio. In his "Statement to the Court," he said: "While there is a lower class, I am in it; while there is a criminal element, I am of it; while there is a soul in prison, I am not free."

• Industrial Workers of the World (IWW): Federal authorities systematically suppressed this radical union, raiding offices and arresting leaders.

• Persecution of German-Americans: German-Americans faced intense pressure to prove loyalty; the German language was discouraged, and items like sauerkraut were renamed "liberty cabbage."

• Schenck v. United States ($1919$): The Supreme Court upheld the Espionage Act, with Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes establishing the "clear and present danger" doctrine to allow speech restrictions during wartime.

Persecution of Dissenters and Military Conscientious Objection

• Approximately $65,000$ men registered as conscientious objectors.

• Legal status was generally restricted to members of recognized peace churches (e.g., Quakers, Mennonites); many were still drafted and some faced imprisonment or brutal treatment in military facilities.

• The Bureau of Investigation (predecessor to the FBI), led by J. Edgar Hoover, created extensive files on thousands of Americans suspected of radicalism or disloyalty, establishing early infrastructure for domestic political repression.

Women's Suffrage and the Impact of Wartime Labor

• Over $1\,million$ women joined the war industries, taking roles in munitions production, transportation, and clerical work.

• Women's service as nurses and ambulance drivers overseas further demonstrated their independence.

• The Suffrage Movement:     - Carrie Chapman Catt (NAWSA): Supported the war effort to prove women deserved political recognition.     - Alice Paul (National Woman's Party): Used militant tactics, including picketing the White House and hunger strikes.

• 19th Amendment: Cited as a reward for women's wartime service, it was passed in $1919$ and ratified in $August\,1920$, granting women the right to vote.

• Post-war reality: Most women were expected to vacate their industrial jobs as returning soldiers reclaimed their positions.

African Americans, the Great Migration, and the Struggle for Democracy

• Military Service: Approximately $400,000$ African Americans served in segregated units.     - The 369th Infantry Regiment ("Harlem Hellfighters") spent more time in continuous combat than any other American unit and received the French Croix de Guerre.     - Black soldiers continued to face systemic discrimination and inferior facilities.

• The Great Migration: Roughly $500,000$ African Americans moved from the rural South to Northern industrial cities (Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, New York) to seek war industry jobs and flee Southern racism.

• Racial Tensions and Riots:     - East St. Louis Race Riot ($July\,1917$): Roughly $100$ Black deaths followed attacks by white workers over job competition.     - Houston Race Riot ($August\,1917$): Resulted from Black soldiers reacting to police brutality; $19$ soldiers were executed by the Army.     - Chicago Race Riot ($July\,1919$): Triggered by the stoning and drowning of a Black teenager at a beach; $38$ people died in the ensuing violence.

Mexican Americans and Wartime Labor Demands

• Labor shortages and European immigration restrictions led to a surge in Mexican immigration.

• Approximately $100,000$ Mexican workers entered the U.S. during the war years, finding employment in meatpacking, mining, and agriculture.

• Mexican Americans served in the military and received decorations for valor while simultaneously facing low wages and prejudice at home.

Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points: A Vision for a New International Order

• Narrated on $January\,8,\,1918$, Wilson's Fourteen Points included:     1. Open diplomacy and the abolition of secret treaties.     2. Freedom of the seas during both peace and war.     3. Removal of economic trade barriers.     4. National armaments reduction.     5. Impartial adjustment of colonial claims considering native interests.     6. Evacuation of Russian, Belgian, and French territories.     7. Restoration of Belgium.     8. Return of Alsace-Lorraine to France.     9. Readjustment of Italian borders.     10. Autonomous development for peoples of Austria-Hungary.     11. Evacuation of the Balkans (Romania, Serbia, Montenegro).     12. Sovereignty for non-Turkish peoples in the Ottoman Empire and free passage through the Dardanelles.     13. Establishment of an independent Polish state.     14. Creation of a League of Nations to ensure mutual security and peace.

• Wilson’s vision was idealistic and challenged the traditional European balance-of-power system, though it was met with skepticism by Allied leaders seeking security and reparations.

The Treaty of Versailles and the Imposition of Peace

• The Paris Peace Conference ($1919$) was dominated by the "Big Four": Wilson (U.S.), David Lloyd George (UK), Georges Clemenceau (France), and Vittorio Orlando (Italy).

• Harsh Provisions for Germany:     - Article 231 ("War Guilt Clause"): Forced Germany to accept sole responsibility for the war.     - Reparations: Germany was ordered to pay $\$33\,billion$ (approx. $\$400\,billion$ today).     - Territorial Losses: Germany lost $13\%$ of its land and $10\%$ of its population; the "Polish Corridor" split German territory.     - Military Restrictions: Army limited to $100,000$ men; no air force; no submarine fleet; Rhineland demilitarized.

• Colonial Mandates: German and Ottoman colonies were divided among the Allies as "mandates" under the League of Nations, effectively continuing colonialism.

The League of Nations and the Domestic Rejection of Wilson’s Internationalism

• Senate Opposition: Led by Republican Henry Cabot Lodge.     - Irreconcilables: Opposed any participation in the League, fearing European entanglements.     - Reservationists: Supported the League but only with modifications to protect U.S. sovereignty.     - Article X: The most controversial provision, which committed members to defend one another; critics feared it would draw the U.S. into war without Congressional approval.

• Wilson refused to compromise and suffered a debilitating stroke in $October\,1919$ during a national speaking tour.

• The Senate eventually rejected the treaty, and the U.S. never joined the League of Nations, weakening the organization and signaling a move toward isolationism.

1919: A Year of Global and Domestic Catastrophe

• The Spanish Influenza Pandemic ($1918$-$1919$):     - Spread rapidly through military camps and troop movements.     - Killed approximately $675,000$ Americans (more than total war deaths).     - Global death toll estimated between $50$ and $100\,million$.

• Postwar Labor Unrest:     - $1919$ saw nearly $4\,million$ workers strike in over $3,600$ actions.     - Seattle General Strike ($February\,1919$): Five-day citywide strike.     - Boston Police Strike ($September\,1919$): Striking officers were fired by Governor Calvin Coolidge, who famously stated: "there is no right to strike against the public safety by anybody, anywhere, any time."     - Steel Strike: Involved $365,000$ workers striking for union recognition; the strike failed.

The Red Scare and the Palmer Raids

• Anxiety over the Russian Revolution ($1917$) led to the first Red Scare (fear of communism and radicalism).

• The Palmer Raids ($November\,1919\,-\,January\,1920$):     - Led by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer and J. Edgar Hoover after anarchist bombings.     - Approximately $5,000$ people arrested without warrants; hundreds were deported.     - The raids significantly violated civil liberties but ultimately declined as public revulsion for their excesses grew.

Racial Violence and the Red Summer of $1919$

• Red Summer: A wave of race riots in over two dozen cities.

• Elaine, Arkansas Massacre ($October\,1919$): White mobs and federal troops killed between $100$ and $237$ African Americans after Black sharecroppers tried to organize.

• The "New Negro" Movement: Black veterans and civilians began organizing for self-defense and racial pride, led by figures like W.E.B. Du Bois (NAACP) and Marcus Garvey (UNIA).

Economic Adjustment and the Return to Normalcy

• The post-war economy suffered from inflation, housing shortages, and unemployment following the cancellation of war contracts.

• Election of 1920: Warren G. Harding won on a platform of a "return to normalcy," rejecting Wilsonian internationalism and progressive activism.

• Immigration Restriction:     - Emergency Quota Act ($1921$): Restricted immigration totals.     - National Origins Act ($1924$): Established permanent quotas favoring northern and western Europeans while severely restricting southern and eastern Europeans.

Key Terms and Significance Index

• American Economic Supremacy: Status as world's leading industrial power ($33\%$ of manufactured goods).

• Big Stick / Dollar / Moral Diplomacy: Strategies used by Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson to project power.

• Sussex Pledge / Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: Pivotal German naval policies regarding American merchant shipping.

• Selective Service Act: Conscription law registering $24\,million$ men.

• AEF / Meuse-Argonne: The primary American military force and its final, largest campaign.

• War Industries Board / CPI: Government boards that managed the economy and public opinion respectively.

• Eugene Debs / Schenck v. US: Key figures and cases regarding the suppression of antiwar dissent.

• 19th Amendment: Constitutional amendment granting women's suffrage in $1920$.

• The Fourteen Points / Article X: Wilson's peace plan and the controversial League of Nations defense provision.

• War Guilt Clause (Article 231): Treaty provision blaming Germany for the war.