Study Notes on Wars of Religion and Reformation

WARS OF RELIGION (FRENCH WARS TO THIRTY YEARS’ WAR)

  • Time Period: 16th and 17th centuries (1500s & 1600s)

Desire for Meaningful Expression and Certainty of Salvation

  • Manifestations of desire for salvation occurred in two primary ways:

    • Relics

    • Indulgences

  • Growing disillusionment among laypeople due to clergy issues led to:

    • Backlash against the Catholic Church, sparking the Protestant Reformation.

Reformation Refresher

  • Central Tenets of Protestantism:

    • Doctrine of Salvation/Justification: Salvation is attainable through faith alone.

    • Biblical Authority: Emphasis on the Bible as the primary source of spiritual truth.

    • Indulgences: Considered by Protestants to guarantee damnation, as opposed to salvation.

  • Key Events:

    • 95 Theses: Martin Luther's document criticizing the Church's practices, specifically indulgences.

    • 1520: Luther published three pamphlets advocating for:

    • Overthrowing the papacy in the Holy Roman Empire (HRE) to establish a reformed church.

    • Attacking the sacraments.

    • Reforming monasticism, allowing clergy to marry.

    • January 1521: Luther was excommunicated from the Church.

Transformation of the Reformation into a Movement

  • Following excommunication, Luther's movement evolved into a revolution.

  • Significant Support:

    • Gained backing from Frederick III, Elector of Saxony.

  • Lutheran Churches: Evolved into territorial or state churches.

  • Implementation of New Religious Services:

    • Conducted in vernacular.

    • Included Bible reading, preaching, and song.

Charles V and the Reformation

  • Position of Charles V: Holy Roman Emperor, viewed Luther's Reformation as a major threat to Catholicism and his empire.

    • Faced difficulties in opposing the Reformation due to various political pressures.

  • Peace of Augsburg (1555):

    • A pivotal agreement that:

    • Granted Lutheranism equal rights to Catholicism.

    • Allowed German princes to determine the religion of their subjects.

COUNTER-REFORMATION (Catholic Reformation)

  • Cornerstones of the Counter-Reformation:

    • Creation of the Jesuits (Society of Jesus): Founded by Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556).

    • Emphasized absolute obedience to the papacy.

    • Adhered to a strict hierarchy.

    • Focused on education.

    • Prepared to engage in conflict for God.

    • Reformed and Revived Papacy:

    • In 1535, Pope Paul III appointed a reform commission.

    • Identified corruption as the root of Church problems.

    • Established the Roman Inquisition (or Holy Offices).

    • Created the Index of Forbidden Books.

Council of Trent (March 1545)

  • Goals of the Council:

    • To discuss possible compromises to encourage Protestant return to Catholicism.

  • Outcomes of the Council:

    • Failed to achieve compromises.

    • Reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings including:

    • Only the Church could interpret scripture.

    • Both faith and good works were necessary for salvation.

    • Justified the continued use of indulgences.

    • Affirmed the Pope's supreme authority.

French Civil Wars (1562-1598)

  • Key Conflict:

    • War between Catholics and Calvinists (Huguenots), constituting about 7% of the population.

    • Factions involved:

    • Huguenots (included House of Bourbons).

    • Valois (Catholic faction).

    • Politiques: Advocating that politics should precede religion, asserting that no religious truth was worth a civil war.

  • Henry of Navarre: Eventually became Henry IV of France.

  • Edict of Nantes (1598):

    • Established Catholicism as the official religion.

    • Granted Huguenots certain rights and protections.

Spain (Philip II, 1566-1598)

  • Philip II:

    • Aimed to consolidate his inheritance, which included Spain, the Netherlands, parts of Italy, and Spanish possessions in the New World.

    • Strived to maintain Catholicism through the Spanish Inquisition and earned the title "Most Catholic King."

    • Notable Marriages:

    • Married four times, notably to Mary I of England (1554-1558).

William of Nassau, Prince of Orange (1581)

  • Resistance against Philip II's rule.

England (Elizabeth I)

  • Characteristics of Elizabeth’s Rule:

    • Emphasized caution, moderation, and expedience.

    • Maintained a strong image of neutrality amidst religious conflicts.

  • Spanish Armada: An attempt by Philip II to dethrone Elizabeth.

Religious Divisions of Europe

  • Religious Landscape: By circa 1550, all of Europe was predominantly Roman Catholic.

  • Defenestration of Prague (May 1618): A pivotal event contributing to the instability of the region which led to increased religious strife.

Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)

  • A major conflict characterized by:

    • Struggles between various Christian denominations across Europe.

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

  • Reaffirmation of Peace of Augsburg:

    • Expanded inclusion of Calvinism and solidified the princes' rights to establish religions.

    • Resulted in weakening the HRE significantly, with the population declining by 33% and it becoming a shell of an empire.

  • Consequences:

    • Bourbons initiated a century of French dominance in European politics.

Contributions of Hugo Grotius (1583-1645)

  • Developed principles of natural law concerning war:

    • War considered a legitimate state of affairs with differentiation between just and unjust conflicts.

    • Advocated for “humane” methods of warfare:

    • Condemned inhumane practices such as poisoning wells, mutilating prisoners, and massacring hostages.