AP HUMAN GEO UNIT 7

Impacts of the Industrial Revolution

Impact

Description

Alteration of landscape

• Factories first built near power sources (rivers, coal deposits, etc.) and transportation routes

• Later, development of electricity, construction      of new roads & harbors allowed factories to be built in diverse locations

Evolution of agriculture

• Improvements in farm machinery and Enclosure Movement increased agricultural productivity 

  • Machine power replaced human/animal power

  • Many people no longer needed for farming 

Impact

Description

Population growth 

• Human population more              than doubled

  • Food surplus due to agricultural improvements

  • Medical advancements

  • Longer life expectancies

• Led to increased demand for goods and housing

Urbanization

• Workers moved to cities to work in factories since they were no longer needed in agriculture 

• Low standard of living (overcrowding, lack of sanitation)

• Growth of buildings & infrastructure

Environmental harm

• Air pollution due to burning of coal to heat homes and run factories

• Water pollution due to lack of sanitation, chemical runoff, etc. 

• Habitat destruction due to growth of cities & infrastructure

Social structure 

• Reshaped how people worked and behaved how they related to one another 

  • Job specialization led to new social structure (upper, middle, working classes)

  • Lots of exploitation but also better chance of social mobility

New ideas

• Advancement of science & medicine

• More interconnected world (new technologies)

• Expansion of education

• Emergence of socialism (discontent among workers who did not benefit as much from capitalism) 

Imperialism

• Renewed interest in imperialism as industry required raw materials and markets to sell to 

  • Colonies provided raw materials, labor to extract materials, markets for finished products, etc. 

Distribution of wealth 

• Wealthy countries became wealthier, leading to a great divide between advanced, industrialized states and underdeveloped, non- industrialized states

  • Trend continues today

jLeast Cost Theory → 

• Developed 1909 by German economist Alfred Weber 

• Theory that attempts to predict the location of manufacturing relative to the location of necessary raw materials and the market

• industries locate to minimize costs, prioritizing transportation, labor, and agglomeration (the clustering of firms, workers, and economic activity in a geographic area, producing mutual benefits from proximity.)

• Explains the geographic distribution of economic industrial activities 

Assumptions:

• The area is an isotropic plane (flat, featureless, quality and price of all land is the same)

• The population is homogeneous (culture, needs, skills, etc.)

• Labor is immobile and unlimited

• Markets have unlimited demand and perfect competition 

• Products are shipped to a single market 

• Transportation costs are determined by weight of the items and distance they will be shipped

• Companies produce only one type of product 

Owners need to balance three factors when deciding where to open a factory: 

• Transportation cost, labor costs and agglomeration

Transporation : 

Raw materials get transported to the factory and finished goods get transported to the market 

• Cost of transportation is determined by weight of the materials and distance shipped and should be minimized
  

Bulk-Reducing Industry → 

• AKA Weight-losing industry, raw material-oriented industry, raw material-dependent industry 

• Raw materials are heavier than the final product so companies should try to locate manufacturing near the source of the raw materials

Bulk-Reducing Industry: Steel 

• Iron ore mined from earth 

• Impurities removed from the iron by melting and oxygenating it, making it lighter and stronger 

Bulk-Gaining Industry →

• AKA weight-gaining industry, market-oriented industry, market-dependent industry

• The final product is heavier than the inputs so companies should locate factories near the market

Bulk-Gaining Industry: Soft Drink Bottling

• Soda companies make syrups for their drinks 

• Syrups are shipped to bottlers

• Bottlers combine water (heavy) with syrups to make soft drinks 
  

Draw and explain the locational triangle. 

• The market is found at one location and the resources to make the product are obtained at two others. The three points make up the locational triangle.

• Where the factory is located within the triangle depends on the weight of the materials 

• If neither raw material loses weight during processing, the company has no advantage in locating near either 

• If one material loses weight when processed, the company can save money by placing factory closer to the other (heavier) resource

• If both materials lose weight during processing, the factory can be located between the two sources 

Agglomeration → The spatial grouping of businesses in order to share costs. 

• Can assist each other through shared talent pool of workers, services, and facilities

• Ex. When several factories share   the cost of building an access road  to connect them with a highway 

Weber argued companies should minimize  transportation  and labor costs and maximize agglomeration. 

• Sometimes, cost savings from cheaper labor or agglomeration can be greater than savings from locating at the cheapest spot relative to transportation costs. In these cases, owners should choose to locate where the cheaper labor or benefits from the agglomeration economies exist.

Criticisms: 

Further Considerations of Industrial Location

Factor

Description

Energy Source

Power sources needed to produce goods can dictate where factories are located

• Early mills located on rivers (immobile water power)

• First manufacturing plants located near coal fields ( bulky/ expensive to transport, lots needed on constant basis)

• Development of electricity made power more mobile and thus the location of energy sources less important 

• Growing reliance on renewable energy sources that are somewhat location-dependent 

Transportation

• Improved transportation technology means being located near a market is less important

  • Trucks for shorter distances, trains for longer distances, ships for long distances, air   for speedy delivery 

Break of Bulk Point → A location where goods are transferred from one means of transportation to another.

• Ex. ports, airports, depots, etc. 

• Break of bulk points are often centers of industry as they allow businesses to save on transportation costs

Interdependence

Locational Interdependence →  The location decision for a factory being dependent upon the location of other factories 

• Use same services

• Keep an eye on competition

• Make use of their products to make your own products

• Etc.

Flexibility

Footloose Business → A business that can pack up and leave for a new location quickly and easily. 

• Low demand for raw materials, don’t   need large spaces 

• Fixed costs no matter where they  establish themselves 

• Typically tech-centric businesses (call centers, online companies, etc.) 

Cost of Land

Bid-Rent Theory → The price and demand for real estate increases the nearer it is to the Central Business District.

• Land cheaper in rural/outer suburban areas, more of it available for construction of large factories

  

Transnational Companies → Large international companies with locations in more than one country. 

• Globalization of business means that companies often choose to build factories in less developed countries (cheaper building costs, cheaper labor costs)
  
  

Prestige & 

Cost Savings

Front Offices → Offices for an executive branch of workers, usually located  in somewhere highly visible and important (expensive). 

Back Offices →  Cheaper office spaces typically for non-executive employees, linked to the front office via technology so they don’t have to be nearby. 

Offshoring → When companies locate their back offices in other countries due to a lower cost of operation.

Labor Force

• Different industries require different kinds of labor 

  • Skilled & unskilled labor

Labor-Oriented Industries → Industries that locate close to major training institutions

Outsourcing → Contracting work out to non-company employees or other companies.

Government Incentives 

• At international level - trade agreements

• At national/regional level - different legal/economic/ business procedures in different countries

• At local level - communities provide incentives such as tax breaks and low-interest loans to attract investment

Globalization → Growing interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and population due to trade, investment, and transportation & communications technologies.

• Integration of national economies into the international economy through trade and foreign direct investment  

Benefits

Drawbacks

• More of/greater variety of goods and ideas 

• Cheaper production and consumer costs

• Businesses have access to    new markets 

• Increased cooperation  between countries

• Increased economic development

• Uneven development            (poor vs rich countries)

• Exploitation of poor         workers and countries

• Helps more powerful   countries exert influence

• Negative impact on environment and resources

• Threat to local cultures               and traditions

Export Processing Zones → designated areas within a country that offer special incentives to attract foreign investment, primarily in manufacturing for export

Benefits

Drawbacks 

• Creates jobs (especially          for women)

• Increases foreign direct investment 

• Introduces new      technology/ideas to LDCs

• Cheaper prices for consumers

• Low paying jobs

• Potentially unsafe and exploitative working conditions

• Goods not sold in and do not benefit the local community 

• Lax environmental regulations

Describing Development

System

Low Development

Middle Development

High Development

Economic Level

Low income

Middle income

High income

Industrialization

Non-industrialized

Newly Industrialized 

Post-Industrial 

Human Development Index

Low HDI

Medium HDI

High/Very High HDI

World Systems 

Theory

Periphery 

Country

Semi Periphery Country

Core 

Country 

Stages of Economic Growth 

Stages 1 + 2

Stage 3

Stages 4 + 5

Economic Indicators

Social/Demographic Indicators

• Economic output (Gross National Product, Gross Domestic Product, Gross National Income)

• Sectoral distribution of workforce

• Income distribution 

• Energy use and production

• Birth/death rate

• Fertility rate

• Life expectancy 

• Gender inequality

• Literacy rate

• Access to healthcare

Economic Sectors

Sector

Description

Examples

Primary

Extraction of natural resources

Farming, mining, fishing, etc. 

Secondary

Processing resources into products

Manufacturing, construction

Tertiary

Selling and transporting products

Marketing, retail, design, etc. 

Quaternary (sub)

Research and transfer of knowledge

Education, IT, banking, etc.

Quinary (sub)

Highest level of decision making

CEOs, judges, politicians, etc. 

Measures of Development 

Measure

Definition

Description of Distribution

Gross Domestic Product

GDP → The total value of goods and services produced within a country’s borders in a year. 

• Provides information about the size of the economy and how well it is performing

• The total value of goods and services produced within that country’s borders in    a year. 

Gross National Product

The total value of goods and services produced by the citizens and corporations of a country in a given year, regardless of their location.

• The total value of goods and services produced by the citizens/corporations of a country in a given year, regardless of their location.

Gross National Income

Measure of the worth of what is produced within a country plus income received from investments outside the country in a year.

• Measure of the worth of what is produced within a country plus income received from investments outside the country in a year.

Gini Coefficient

A measurement of the distribution of income within a population.

• Values range between 0-1 

  • 0 means everyone’s income is same

  • Higher the number, higher the degree of inequality 

• In general, developing countries have the highest income inequality and highly developed countries have lower income inequality 

Energy Use 

& Production

• More developed countries tend to use more energy, including fossil fuels and renewable energy 

  • Fossil fuels = coal, petroleum, oil, natural gas, etc.

  • Although developed countries have been slowly decreasing their CO2 emissions, they still produce much more than developing countries

  • More developed countries have greater      capability to build infrastructure that          harnesses renewable energy 

• SOCIAL MEASURES OF DEVELOPMENT : 

• Generally, in highly developed countries, people enjoy a high standard of living and in less developed countries, people have lower standards of living

Factors associated with standard of living: poverty rate, class disparity, quality of housing, working conditions, access to healthcare, quality of education, political stability, safety, environmental preservation

Fertility Rate

• Generally, the most developed countries struggle with low fertility rates and the least developed countries have very high fertility rates. 

• Factors affecting fertility rates: educational opportunities for women, access to family planning methods, government policies, gender equality, etc.

Life Expectancy

• Life expectancy is higher in countries with high levels of development and lower in less developed countries

• Good indicator of overall quality of life 

  • Greatly impacted by child mortality 

  • Low life expectancy also suggests poor nutrition and healthcare, etc.

Gender Inequality 

• A composite index for measuring gender disparity. 

  • Considers reproductive health (maternal mortality rate, fertility rate), empowerment (government seats held by each sex, proportion of females with secondary education), and labor market participation of women

• Higher levels of gender equality are associated with higher levels of development and lower levels are associated with lower development

Access to Healthcare

• Generally, people in more developed countries have more access to healthcare and enjoy better quality healthcare than those in less developed countries

• Barriers to effective healthcare: cost, limited number of doctors, lack of infrastructure, inadequate supplies and equipment, etc. 

Literacy Rate

• Generally, developed countries have very high literacy rates and less developed countries have lower literacy rates. 

• Barriers to education: cost, lack of government funding, lack of teachers, poor quality of teacher training, lack of infrastructure, exclusion based on gender/ ethnicity/ability, political instability, etc.

Human Development Index

• A measure of development that combines one economic measure (GNI per capita) with several social measures, such as high life expectancy and average education level. 

• Created by the UN

• Rankings of countries by HDI and income often similar 

• Countries that invest in things like education or medicine sometimes rank higher in HDI than income (i.e. Cuba)

• Some countries have high incomes but don’t perform well in terms of social measures (i.e. Qatar) 

Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth → 

Stages of Economic Growth Model → A development model proposed by economist Walt Rostow in 1960 that describes the shift from traditional to modern forms of society. 

• Assumed all countries wanted to and would modernize, albeit at different speeds

• Saw economic development as linear progression to modernity through five stages of development

• Different conditions/levels of investment required for a country to move from one stage to the next 

Drawing: 

Economy

Technology

Trade

Society

Stage 1: Traditional Society

Dependent on primary sector activities for subsistence 

Limited technology (labor-intensive agriculture)

Limited trade (local/regional) based on the barter system

Lack of class or individual mobility; tradition

Stage 2: Pre - Condition for Takeoff 

Shift to commercial agriculture 

Increasing spread of technology & advances in existing technology (irrigation, canals, etc.) 

Increasing specialization generates agricultural surplus for trading; expanded trade due to expanded infrastructure

Start of individual social mobility

Stage 3: Takeoff

Industrialization increases, workers shift from agriculture to manufacturing 

Technological breakthroughs tied to industrialization; openness to innovation 

International trade expands 

Beginning of urbanization; evolution of new political and social institutions to support industrialization; further class stratification

Stage 4: Drive to Maturity

Economy diversifies; existing industries expand and new ones established quickly

Improved energy, transportation, communication systems; innovation provides diverse range of investment opportunities 

Economy producing wide range of goods and services and less reliance needed on imports

Large-scale investment in social infrastructure (schools, universities, hospitals, etc.) enables increased social mobility 

Stage 5: High Mass Consumpt-ion

Service sector becomes increasingly dominant; economy geared towards mass consumption

Advanced communication and transportation technologies 

Reliant on countries in earlier stages for raw materials; dominance of trade hierarchy  

Desire to create egalitarian society; consumers have disposable income to spend on luxury goods

Criticisms

• Development not always linear

• Does not account for differences that could hinder development (size, population, resources, location, etc.) 

• Model based on western countries - doesn’t work for non-capitalist or undemocratic states   

• Assumes everyone could eventually lead life of high consumption but does not account for sustainability  

• Fails to acknowledge that most countries in stage 5 got there through exploitation and those not there yet don’t have the same opportunities

Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory → 

An alternative view to Rostow’s model proposed by historian Immanuel Wallerstein in the 1970s that included political and economic elements and proposed that countries do not exist in isolation, but are part of an interdependent system.

• Argued that international trade led to creation of capitalist world economy in which a system based on wealth and power extends beyond individual states.

• fails to account for Non Governmental Organizations that offer microfinance for those in developing countries

• fails to consider other programs such as microloans that seek support to those in semi periphery and periphery allowing them to be interdependent and self reliant

Countries of the world are all part of   an interconnected economic system

• Countries categorized according to influence: core (most dominant), semi-periphery, periphery (least dominant) 

  • System needs countries of  each category to work

  • Countries can change categories, though it isn’t easy 

Drawing: 

Core

Semi-Periphery

Periphery

Description

The most economically and politically dominant countries that receive goods  and raw materials from the periphery           and semi-periphery.

• Benefit from and hold power over periphery and semi-periphery 

• Dominate the tertiary sector

• Became dominant through colonialism and stay dominant through neocolonialism

Middle-income countries that receive raw materials from the periphery and provide the core with goods and services it used to provide for itself.

• Mix of characteristics of the core and the periphery

• Dominates the secondary sector 

• Exploits the periphery and is exploited by the core

Least-developed countries that provide the core and semi-periphery with inexpensive raw materials, labor, and agricultural production.

• Most jobs in primary sector 

• Receives jobs but little profit from manufacturing

• Are typically former colonies

Examples

• Ex. US, UK, Japan, Germany, etc.

• Ex. India, Mexico, Brazil, China, Russia, South Africa, etc. 

• Ex. Afghanistan, Zimbabwe, Peru, etc. 

Criticisms

• Somewhat outdated - based on industrial production but many countries are postindustrial 

• Limited practical use - suggests that countries can change their position but doesn’t say how 

• Fails to recognize role of NGOs, private charitable groups or foreign investment  in development

• Doesn’t acknowledge that trade is asymmetrical - periphery is dependent on few trade relationships but core can source materials from many countries

Goal

Key Indicators

No poverty

• Eradicate extreme poverty (living on less than $1.25/day) for all people everywhere 

• Implement social protection systems

• Ensure equal access to economic resources and

Zero hunger

• Ensure all people have sufficient nutritious food

• Increase agricultural productivity and income of small farmers

• Increase investment in rural infrastructure, agricultural research

Good health & well-being

• Reduce maternal & infant mortality, death from pollution & road accidents 

• End AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria

• Ensure access to health services, including sexual and reproductive health information and programs for all 

Quality education

• Ensure all children complete secondary school and that all adults have access to postsecondary education and vocational training 

• Eliminate gender disparities in education 

• Upgrade educational facilities and increase number of teachers

Gender equality

• End all forms of discrimination against women and girls 

• Eliminate violence against and exploitation of women and girls, including trafficking, child marriage, and genital mutilation 

• Ensure equal opportunities for women to participate in the economy and all levels of leadership

Clean water and sanitation

• Ensure universal and equitable access to safe drinking water 

• Ensure adequate sanitation and end open defecation 

• Reduce water pollution 

• Ensure sustainable use of freshwater 

Affordable and clean energy

• Ensure universal access to affordable, modern energy services

• Increase share of renewable energy 

• Enhance investment in clean energy research and technology 

Decent work and economic growth

• Promote policies that support job creation and entrepreneurship 

• Ensure equal pay for work of equal value 

• Reduce youth unemployment 

• Protect labor rights and eradicate forced labor and modern slavery

Industry, innovation and infastructure

• Develop reliable, sustainable, and resilient infrastructure 

• Upgrade infrastructure and industries to make them sustainable 

• Provide least developed countries with support to develop infrastructure 

Reduced inequalities

• Ensure income growth at a higher grate for the poorest in society 

• Eliminate discriminatory laws, policies, and practices

• Encourage foreign investment where it is needed most

Sustainable cities and communities

• Ensure access to safe, affordable housing and transportation 

• Enhance sustainable urbanization 

• Provide increased access to green spaces

Responsible consumption and production

• Achieve sustainable and efficient use of natural resources

• Reduce global waste, especially food waste 

• Spread awareness about sustainability 

• Phase out harmful fossil fuel subsidies

Climate action

• Strengthen resilience to climate-related natural disasters

• Improve education about climate action 

• Integrate climate change measures into policies and planning

Life below water

• Prevent and reduce marine pollution of all kinds

• Minimize and address impact of ocean acidification 

• Prevent overfishing and illegal, unregulated fishing 

• Protect oceans and their resources under international law

Life on land

• Ensure conservation and sustainable use of land

• Reduce deforestation and desertification 

• End poaching and trafficking of plants and animals 

• Prevent invasive species and protect biodiversity

Peace, justice and strong institutions

• Significantly reduce all forms of violence, exploitation and abuse

• Promote equal access to justice for all 

• Reduce organized crime, corruption, and bribery 

• Promote and enforce non-discriminatory laws and policies 

Partnerships for the goal

• Promote foreign investment in the least developed countries 

• Share technology and knowledge 

• Promote an open, non-discriminatory trade system