Define language and demonstrate familiarity with the components of language
Understand the development of language
Explain the relationship between language and thinking
Language is a communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another. While language is a form of communication, not all communication is language. Many species communicate through postures, movements, odors, or vocalizations. Language has been argued as a uniquely human feature by some researchers (Corballis & Suddendorf, 2007; Tomasello & Rakoczy, 2003).
This section focuses on what distinguishes language as a special form of communication, how language develops, and how language affects thought.
Components of Language
Language (spoken, signed, or written) has specific components: lexicon and grammar.
Lexicon: the words of a language; a language’s vocabulary.
Grammar: the set of rules used to convey meaning through the lexicon.
Example: English grammar dictates that most verbs take an "-ed" ending for past tense.
Words are formed by combining the language’s phonemes.
Phoneme: a basic sound unit of a language (e.g., the sounds "ah" vs. "eh"). Different languages have different sets of phonemes.
Phonemes are combined to form morphemes, the smallest units of language that convey meaning (e.g., the word "I" is both a phoneme and a morpheme).
Semantics and syntax are parts of a language’s grammar:
Semantics: the process of deriving meaning from morphemes and words.
We apply grammar rules to organize the lexicon in novel, creative ways to communicate information about both concrete and abstract concepts.
Examples of abstract communication: discussing future plans, debates about education, giving detailed instructions, etc.
Through language, we can form, organize, and express ideas, schema, and artificial concepts.
Language Development
Language acquisition is rapid in children, though it can seem arduous for adults learning a second language.
Theoretical perspectives:
B. F. Skinner (1957): language learned through reinforcement (behaviorist view).
Noam Chomsky (1965): language acquisition mechanisms are biologically determined (nativist view).
The use of language develops in the absence of formal instruction and follows patterns across cultures, suggesting a biological predisposition to language (Chomsky, 1965; Fernández & Cairns, 2011).
The idea of a critical period for language: maximal proficiency early in life; after a certain age, language acquisition becomes more difficult (Johnson & Newport, 1989; Lenneberg, 1967; Singleton, 1995).
Language development begins very early, even prenatally:
Newborns show preference for their mother’s voice and can discriminate between their mother’s language and other languages.
Babies are attuned to the language environment and prefer videos where facial movement synchronizes with spoken language (Blossom & Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke & Cortelyou, 1981).
Stages of Language and Communication Development (Table 7.1)
Stage 1 (Age: 0−3months): Reflexive communication
Stage 2 (Age: 3−8months): Reflexive communication; interest in others
Stage 5 (Age: 18−24months): Simple sentences of two words; sentences of three or more words
Stage 6 (Age: 2−3years):
Stage 7 (Age: 3−5years): Complex sentences; has conversations
DEEPER: The Case of Genie
In fall 1970, Genie, a 13-year-old girl, was found in neglectful and abusive circumstances, largely isolated since childhood (tied to a potty chair or confined to a crib).
After removal from her environment, Genie’s language appeared to develop rapidly in vocabulary but did not show mastery of grammatical aspects of language.
This case suggests that early deprivation can impede full grammatical language acquisition, possibly supporting the idea of a critical period for syntax and grammar.
Babies can discriminate among the sounds of all human languages early on, including phonemes not present in their environment.
By about 1 year, infants can no longer discriminate all phonemes and instead narrow to phonemes used in their environment.
Babbling stage: after a few months, babies produce repeating syllables; over time, babbling becomes more varied. They are not necessarily trying to communicate yet; babbling occurs whether or not caregivers are present (Fernández & Cairns, 2011).
When sign language is used, babies also babble with gestures (Petitto et al., 2004).
First words typically appear between 12−18months, with the child’s early vocabulary often referring to familiar objects or events (often nouns).
The transition from one-word terms to short sentences happens rapidly as the lexicon expands and rules understanding grows.
Overgeneralization: children apply a language rule too broadly to exceptions (example: adding "-s" for plurals but applying it to irregulars: "those two gooses"; "three mouses"); evidence that children understand rules even while exceptions are still being learned (Moskowitz, 1978).
Language and Thought
Core question: Do words shape thought, or do thoughts shape language?
Sapir and Whorf (1940s) proposed that language determines thought (linguistic determinism). Example: languages with many terms for love vs English which uses one word for love. This raised questions about how language could constrain thought (Sapir, 1941/1964; Whorf, 1956).
Modern view: this determinism is too absolute and suffers from a lack of empirical support; researchers emphasize more nuanced, probabilistic links between language and thought (Abler, 2013; Boroditsky, 2011; van Troyer, 1994).
Current discussions examine how language might influence cognitive processes, not strictly determine them.
What Do You Think? The Meaning of Language
Consider multilingual individuals: does thinking change with language use? Are some concepts or ideas more readily expressed or framed differently depending on the language spoken?
There are non-translatable words that capture unique cultural concepts (e.g., the Portuguese word saudade), which expresses a felt mix of loss, nostalgia, yearning, warm memories, and hope. No direct English single-word equivalent captures all these nuances.
Example prompts in the text invite reflection on how language shapes thought and perception.
Linguistic Determinism and Perception: Time and Color
Linguistic determinism: language may influence how we think about time and color, though not in a simple, universal way.
Time: English describes time with horizontal terms (e.g., run behind schedule, get ahead of yourself). Mandarin also uses horizontal terms but often uses vertical spatial metaphors (past as "up", future as "down"). Such linguistic differences can affect cognitive performance on temporal relation tasks: when a task uses vertical priming, Mandarin speakers may be faster at recognizing certain temporal relationships (Boroditsky, 2001).
Color: English has 11 basic color terms; the Dani of Papua New Guinea have only two basic color terms (one for light, one for dark). Despite fewer words, Dani speakers can distinguish colors as well as English speakers on perceptual tasks, challenging a strict link between color terminology and color discrimination. This study suggested that language might influence perceptual phenomena, especially in the left hemisphere (Berlin & Kay, 1969).
Reviews of this area suggest language can influence perceptual phenomena, with effects localized more to the left hemisphere, which is commonly associated with language processing for most people. However, the right hemisphere’s role in these processes is less explicit in the text (the content here is truncated in the source).
Connections to Foundational Concepts and Real-World Relevance
Foundational ideas:
Distinction between language and general communication across species.
Lexicon and grammar as core components of language structure.
Phonemes, morphemes, semantics, and syntax as building blocks.
Critical period hypothesis for language acquisition and the role of biology vs. environment.
Evidence from cases like Genie illustrating limits of language acquisition without early exposure.
Real-world relevance:
Language development milestones inform pediatric assessment and early intervention.
Understanding how language influences thought can affect education, cross-cultural communication, and cognitive testing.
Insights into second language learning can guide language teaching strategies and expectations for adults.
Key Figures and Studies Mentioned
Language development and acquisition theories
Skinner (1957): language as learned by reinforcement.
Chomsky (1965): language acquisition is biologically determined; supports a UG (Universal Grammar) perspective.
Johnson & Newport (1989); Lenneberg (1967); Singleton (1995): evidence for a critical period in language acquisition.
Fernández & Cairns (2011) for developmental language concepts.
Early language discrimination and babbling in infancy
Blosson & Morgan (2006); Pickens (1994); Spelke & Cortelyou (1981): infant language perception and preference for synchrony.
Petitto et al. (2004): babbling in sign language; suggests modality-general aspects of early communication.
Genie case study
Fromkin, Krashen, Curtiss, Rigler, & Rigler (1974); Curtiss (1981); Rymer (1993): case of severe deprivation and language outcome.
Overgeneralization in child language
Moskowitz (1978): evidence of rule understanding despite incorrect applications.
Language and thought (linguistic relativity)
Sapir (1941/1964); Whorf (1956): linguistic determinism ideas.
Abler (2013); Boroditsky (2011); van Troyer (1994): contemporary critique and updates.
Boroditsky (2001): time perception and linguistic framing (English vs. Mandarin).
Berlin & Kay (1969): color terminology across languages (Dani vs English).
Practical and Ethical Implications
Ethical considerations around language deprivation (Genie case) highlight the importance of early social interaction for typical language development and the potential long-term limits of late exposure to language.
Implications for education: recognizing critical periods and tailoring language learning approaches for children vs. adults.
Philosophical implications: the extent to which language shapes thought remains debated, influencing how we think about cognition, perception, and cross-cultural communication.
Quick Reference: Key Terms
Lexicon: vocabulary of a language
Grammar: rules for combining words to convey meaning
Phoneme: smallest unit of sound that differentiates meaning
Morpheme: smallest unit of meaning in language
Semantics: meaning of words and sentences
Syntax: arrangement of words into sentences
Babbling: early vocal experimentation in infants
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule to an exception
Critical period: a time window during which language acquisition occurs most easily
Linguistic determinism: idea that language determines thought
Left hemisphere language: typically dominant for language processing
Summary Takeaways
Language is a structured system (lexicon + grammar) that enables novel and abstract communication through rules of phonology, morphology, semantics, and syntax.
Language development unfolds in stages, beginning prenatally and accelerating in early childhood, with a critical period influencing ultimate proficiency.
The Genie case provides a cautionary tale about deprivation and the limits of language learning after a certain developmental window.
Language and thought interact in complex ways; while language can influence thought, it does not rigidly determine it. Evidence suggests nuanced, context-dependent effects across domains like time perception and color categorization, with hemispheric patterns playing a role.
Real-world relevance spans education, cognitive science, and cross-cultural communication, with ongoing ethical considerations in research and intervention.