Questioned Documents

Questioned Documents: Definition and Examples

  • A questioned document is defined as any object containing handwritten or printed material whose source or authenticity is in question.

  • Questioned documents can appear on various materials, not limited to paper.

  • Examples of questioned documents include:

    • Handwritten documents

    • Typewritten documents

    • Copied documents (xerography)

    • Computer-printed documents

    • Documents on multiple surfaces, such as painted surfaces, mirrors, and walls

Handwriting Analysis

Handwriting Exemplars

  • Requested exemplars are writing samples taken from someone specifically for comparison with a questioned document.

  • Advantages of requested exemplars:

  • Control over content, paper, and writing instrument

  • Ability to collect enough samples to minimize the chances of the writer disguising their writing

  • Disadvantage of requested exemplars:

  • If a significant amount of time has passed between when the questioned document was written and when the requested exemplar is collected, the handwriting may have changed.

  • Non-requested exemplars are examples of a subject's writing taken during normal business or personal activities.

  • Examples of non-requested exemplars:

  • Checks

  • Bills

  • Diary entries

  • Notes

  • Advantage of non-requested exemplars:

  • Samples are typically obtained from around the same time the questioned document was produced.

  • Disadvantage of non-requested exemplars:

  • Difficulty establishing the authenticity of the exemplar

Handwriting Comparisons

  • The ability of a questioned document examiner to identify the author of a handwritten document depends on two factors:

  • Sufficient individual characteristics must be present in the unknown sample.

  • Sufficient samples of the alleged writer's authentic handwriting must be available.

  • There is no set number of matching characteristics required for positive identification.

  • The number of matches needed depends on:

    • Size of the questioned document and exemplar samples

    • Nature of the characteristics

    • Experience of the examiner

    • Using percentage probabilities to express findings is not permissible.

Characteristics Used in Handwriting Comparison

  • Class and individual characteristics can be used for comparison.

  • Common characteristics include:

    • Spacing between letters and words

    • Relative proportions of letters and within letters

    • Individual letter formations

    • Formations of letter combinations

    • Overall slant of the writing

    • Connecting strokes

    • Pen lifts

    • Beginning and ending strokes

    • Unusual flourishes

    • Pen pressure

Signatures

  • A person's signature may not always represent their typical handwriting or contain the same individual characteristics. [5]

  • A single signature may not be enough for a definitive conclusion. [5]

  • Signatures tend to be sensitive to context. [5]

  • Formal signature: Used on official documents and made carefully. [5]

  • Informal signature: Used in routine correspondence. [5]

  • Abbreviated or stylistic signature: Used for frequently signed items like checks and credit card receipts. [5]

  • Signature exemplars should always be collected in context. [5]

Forged Signatures

  • Signatures are common targets of forgery attempts. [6]

  • Methods of forgery: [6]

  • Practicing from a known sample

  • Freehanding the signature

  • Tracing

Characteristics of Forgery

  • Common characteristics of forged signatures: [7]

  • Lack of individuality

  • Slow writing speed

  • Unnatural appearance, resembling "drawing"

  • Careful correction of mistakes

  • Identical signatures (indicating tracing)

  • Lack of rhythm

  • Unnatural starts and stops

  • Inconsistent letters

Disguised Writing

  • Characteristics of disguised writing: [7]

  • Inconsistent slant and letter formations

  • Change in capital letters

  • Use of block lettering

  • Significant change in writing size

  • Writing with the non-dominant hand

  • Lack of rhythm

  • Irregular spacing

  • Unnatural starts and stops

  • Excessive ornamentation

Printed Documents

Typewriters

  • Examiners can determine if a document originated from a specific typewriter by examining: [8]

  • Reproducible defects that develop as metal characters wear down, chip, bend, or misalign

  • Determining the typewriter's make and model requires a comprehensive library of sample writings. [8]

Laser Printers and Copiers

  • Characters used in xerography are unlikely to deform over time. [9]

  • Individualization may be possible if recurring extraneous marks or toner blotches appear until the machine is cleaned. [10]

  • Chemical analysis and comparison of toner samples can help identify the copier's make. [10]

Other Printed Documents

  • Ink-Jet Printers: [11]

  • Water-based ink sprayed onto paper

  • Individualization may be possible through extraneous, reproducible markings and chemical analysis of ink.

  • Fax Machines: [11]

  • Individualization may be possible through extraneous markings, ink analysis, and the Transmitting Terminal Identifier (TTI).

Additional Examinations

  • Document examiners also inspect document alterations, including: [12]

  • Obliterations

  • Erasures

  • Added markings

  • Indented writings

  • Charred documents

  • Analysis of inks, papers, and pencil leads is also conducted. [12]

  • Examiners may be asked to determine the age of a document. [12]

Obliterations

  • Obliteration: Overwriting existing writing or printing with another writing instrument. [13]

  • Methods to reveal obliterated writing depend on the original writing and the obliteration method. [13]

  • Examples of techniques: [13]

  • Dissolving the obliteration

  • Using a light source that penetrates only the obliteration

  • Treating the paper with oil to change its refractive index

  • Various soaking techniques

Erasures

  • Abrasive erasure: Removing material with an abrasive eraser. [14]

  • Easily detected due to disturbance of paper coatings and fibers. [14]

  • Chemical erasure: Dissolving or bleaching ink. [14]

  • Detectable by color variations in the paper or chemical behavior under different light sources. [14]

  • Typewriter erasures: Using a ribbon to lift images from paper. [14]

  • Visible as indentations detectable with oblique-angle photography and a low-power microscope. [14]

Indented Writings

  • Indented writings: Images formed on underlying pages due to pressure on the top sheet of a pad. [15]

  • Visualization methods: [15]

  • Oblique lighting

  • Electrostatic Detection Apparatus (ESDA), which uses toner to highlight indentations

Charred Documents

  • Partially burned documents may still be decipherable.

  • Ink or pencil may resist charring more than paper.

  • Examination involves various light sources due to document fragility.

Training and Education of Questioned Document Examiners

  • No formal college-based programs for questioned document analysis exist in the U.S.

  • Training is primarily through apprenticeships, including:

  • Formal coursework

  • Study of relevant literature

  • Apprenticeship under an experienced professional

  • Legal aspects and mock trial exercises

  • Certification is available through the American Board of Forensic Document Examiners.

Handling Questioned Documents

  • Guidelines for handling questioned documents:

    • Avoid folding, cutting, tearing, marking, or writing on the document.

    • Do not use paperclips, staples, or hole punches.

    • Process fingerprints after document examination.

    • Transport by hand delivery or registered mail.

    • Maintain accurate chain of custody.

    • Photograph the document upon receipt.

    • Initial and date the document.

    • Store in a secure vault.

    • Minimize light exposure and handling.

    • Use transparent, plastic folders for storage.

    • Keep accurate records.