20th-Century Music: Comprehensive Study Notes

Impressionism

  • Early defining stylistic entry into 20th-century music; paralleled Impressionist painting.

  • Aims:

    • Suggest reality rather than depict it literally.

    • Evoke moods, colors, atmosphere; emphasize light, water, nature.

    • Listeners receive an "impression" or emotional tint, not a detailed picture.

  • Musical traits (implied throughout lecture):

    • Subtle, shifting tonal centers; use of modes, whole-tone, pentatonic scales.

    • Delicate orchestration, blurred cadences, emphasis on timbre.

  • Representative works & composers:

    • Claude Debussy: La Mer, Clair de Lune (within Suite Bergamasque), Prélude à l’Après-midi d’un Faune.

    • Maurice Ravel: Jeux d’Eau, Daphnis et Chloé, Boléro.

    • Other national Impressionists: Ottorino Respighi (Italy), Manuel de Falla & Isaac Albéniz (Spain), Ralph Vaughan-Williams (England).

Claude Debussy ("Father of the Modern School of Composition")

  • Birth: 22 Aug 1862, St-Germain-en-Laye, France; died 25 Mar 1918, Paris (during WWI).

  • Education & formative years:

    • Entered Paris Conservatory 1873; known as an erratic pianist & rebel in harmony classes.

    • Won Prix de Rome 1884 with cantata L’Enfant Prodigue; spent 2 yrs study in Rome.

  • Stylistic innovations:

    • Evolved traditional rules into new possibilities of harmony (parallel chords, unresolved dissonance), rhythm (flexible, speech-like), form (free, episodic), texture (layered ostinati), orchestral color (novel instrument combinations).

    • Incorporated influences: Liszt’s virtuosity, Chopin’s piano idiom, Bach’s counterpoint, Verdi’s lyricism, Javanese gamelan (heard at 1889 Paris Exposition), Symbolist poetry.

    • Initially admired Wagner but later rejected excessive German chromaticism in favor of French subtlety.

  • Mature works (selection from approx. 227 total compositions):

    • Vocal: Ariettes Oubliées.

    • Orchestral: Prélude à l’Après-midi d’un Faune (tone poem), La Mer (atmospheric sea symphony 1905).

    • Chamber: String Quartet in g-minor.

    • Opera: Pelléas et Mélisande 1895 – controversial for speech-like declamation & innovative harmony.

    • Piano cycles: Images, Estampes, Suite Bergamasque (contains Clair de Lune); lightly textured, transparent sonorities.

  • Legacy: Central figure for Impressionists; his approach opened doors to modernist harmonic language.

Maurice Ravel

  • Birth: Ciboure, France; Basque mother, Swiss father; entered Paris Conservatory at 14, studied under Gabriel Fauré.

  • Personality & craft:

    • Perfectionist, self-proclaimed "musical craftsman".

    • Retained classical clarity, esp. ternary forms, while using extended harmonies & modal melodies.

    • Requires high virtuosity from performers.

  • Stylistic profile: Innovative yet tonal (not atonal); crystalline orchestration; motivic economy; Spanish color; jazz inflections later.

  • Major works chronologically:

    • Pavane pour une Infante Défunte 1899 (slow, lyrical commemorative dance).

    • Jeux d’Eau 1901 (sparkling water imagery for piano).

    • String Quartet 1903.

    • Sonatine 1904.

    • Miroirs 1905 (five piano pieces exploring harmonic imagination).

    • Gaspard de la Nuit 1908 – virtuosic "demonic" piano trilogy; among hardest in repertoire.

    • Rapsodie Espagnole 1907–1908 – orchestral Spanish portrait.

    • Valses nobles et sentimentales 1911.

    • Daphnis et Chloé 1912 – ballet for Diaghilev; lush chorus, nature evocation, rhythmic diversity.

    • Le Tombeau de Couperin 1917 – neo-Baroque homage.

    • La Valse 1920 – swirling waltz with ominous undertone.

    • Tzigane 1922 – violin showpiece.

    • Two piano concerti 1929 (in G major; for left hand).

    • Boléro (premiered 1928, composed 1927; single inexorable crescendo over ostinato).

  • Comparison with Debussy (see dedicated section).

Comparative Styles of Debussy & Ravel

  • Sonic overlap: modal/whole-tone scales, coloristic orchestration, fluid textures.

  • Differences:

    • Form: Debussy spontaneous, free; Ravel meticulous, classical.

    • Motives: Debussy paints broad washes; Ravel develops motives with logical precision.

    • Imagery: Debussy evocative & casual; Ravel exacting, sometimes programmatic.

    • Personality: Debussy bohemian/experimental; Ravel methodical craftsman.

Expressionism & Arnold Schoenberg

  • Birth: 13 Sep 1874, Vienna; death 13 Jul 1951, Los Angeles (emigrated 1934).

  • Self-taught in theory; studied counterpoint; early influence of Wagnerian chromaticism & Brahmsian form.

  • Transitional style: Late-Romantic works such as Verklärte Nacht 1899 blending Brahms lyricism with Wagner harmonic tension (tone poem for string sextet/orchestra).

  • Breakthroughs:

    • Freed dissonance from resolution (atonality, 1908–1920 period).

    • Invented 12-tone / dodecaphonic "serial" method (post-1923): organize pitches into orderly rows ensuring equality of all 12 chromatic tones.

  • Major works (approx. 213 pieces):

    • Gurrelieder (massive cantata; still tonal).

    • Three Piano Pieces Op.11 (early atonal gestation).

    • Pierrot Lunaire 1912: melodrama for voice & chamber ensemble using Sprechstimme; expressionist text painting.

    • Later serial: Suite for Piano Op.25, Variations for Orchestra Op.31, Moses und Aron (unfinished opera).

  • Pedagogy: Teacher of Berg & Webern (Second Viennese School).

Igor Stravinsky

  • Birth: 17 Jun 1882, Oranienbaum, Russia; death 06 Apr 1971, New York.

  • Early mentorship under Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (colorful orchestration).

  • Ballet trilogy for Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes that redefined modern music:

    1. The Firebird 1910 – nationalistic Russian folk flavor; brilliant orchestration.

    2. Petrushka 1911 – polytonality, shifting meters portray puppet drama.

    3. The Rite of Spring 1913 – violent primitivism, asymmetrical rhythms, extreme dissonance; near abandonment of traditional tonality, caused premiere riot.

  • Later stylistic phases: Neo-Classicism (Pulcinella, Symphony in C), Serialism (Agon).

  • Output approx. 127 works across genres.

  • Considered with Schoenberg, Picasso, Joyce as 20th-century cultural titans.

Survey of Additional 20th-Century Styles

  • Primitivism.

  • Neo-Classicism.

  • Avant-Garde / Minimalism.

  • Modern Nationalism (e.g., Gershwin, Copland, Bartók).

  • Notable nationalistic "Russian Five": Mussorgsky, Balakirev, Borodin, Cui, Rimsky-Korsakov (formative 19th-century group whose influence carried into 20th century).

Primitivism

  • Definition: Tonal focus on single pitch or ostinati; juxtaposition of simple ideas to synthesize raw new sonorities.

  • Traits:

    • Powerful, loud, drum-like rhythms.

    • Repetitive patterns, ostinati.

    • Raw, modal or pentatonic melodies; deliberate dissonance.

    • Inspiration from folk, tribal, prehistoric themes.

  • Iconic exemplar: Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring.

Bela Bartók (primitivist & ethnomusicologist)

  • Birth 25 Mar 1881, Nagyszentmiklós (now Romania); death 26 Sep 1945, New York.

  • Pianist; studied at Budapest Royal Academy 1899.

  • Collected & recorded thousands of Hungarian, Slovak, Romanian folk songs starting 1906; integrated modal scales & asymmetric rhythms into works.

  • Key works:

    • Kossuth (symphonic poem 1903).

    • 6 String Quartets 1908–1938 – merge dissonance with folk motifs.

    • Allegro Barbaro 1911 – piano piece typifying primitivist power (fast, pounding, Hungarian idiom).

    • Mikrokosmos 1926–1939 – 153 graded piano pieces exploring modern techniques.

    • Concerto for Orchestra 1943 – late American commission; showcases every orchestral section.

  • Output approx. 700 works.

  • Emigrated to USA 1940 due to WWII politics.

Neo-Classicism

  • Aesthetic: Reinterprets 18th-century clarity, balance, formal symmetry using 20th-century harmony, rhythm, and timbre.

  • Bridges Romantic excess & Expressionist turmoil; music is structured yet modern.

  • Traits vs Classical era:

    • Retains clear melodies & forms but employs dissonance, irregular meters, extended chords, modern orchestration.

Sergei Prokofieff (neo-classical, nationalist, avant-garde)

  • Birth 23 Apr 1891, Sontsovka, Ukraine; death 05 Mar 1953, Moscow.

  • Hallmarks: Driving rhythms, memorable melodies, sarcasm, transparent form.

  • Famous pieces:

    • Peter and the Wolf 1936 – narrated children’s piece with instrumental leitmotifs.

    • Classical Symphony (Symphony No.1 in D, 1917) – Haydn-like clarity with modern twists (sharper accents, sudden modulations).

    • Romeo & Juliet ballet 1935–1936 – lush, dramatic.

  • Style summary: Accessible yet sophisticated; fusion of old forms & new harmonies.

Francis Poulenc (member of "Les Six")

  • Birth 07 Jan 1899, Paris; death 30 Jan 1963.

  • Background: Wealthy family; rejected Wagnerian heaviness & Impressionist vagueness.

  • Music profile: Light, witty, urbane yet capable of profound spirituality.

  • Representative works:

    • Concerto for Two Pianos 1932 – playful neo-classical dialogue.

    • Gloria 1959 – choral/orchestral work combining exuberance & devotion.

    • Les Mamelles de Tirésias 1947 – satirical opera.

George Gershwin (American modern nationalist / crossover)

  • Birth 26 Sep 1898, Brooklyn; death 11 Jul 1937, Hollywood.

  • Early success on Broadway (La La Lucille 1919).

  • Synthesized jazz rhythms with symphonic form: Rhapsody in Blue 1924, An American in Paris 1928.

  • Opera Porgy and Bess 1935 – landmark American folk opera.

  • Influences: Ravel, Stravinsky, Berg, Schoenberg, Les Six.

  • Nickname: "Father of American Jazz" for merging primitive swing with classical sophistication.

  • Output approx. 369 works across stage, film, orchestra.

Leonard Bernstein (conductor-composer-educator)

  • Birth 25 Aug 1918, Massachusetts; death 14 Oct 1990.

  • Instant fame: substituted at NY Philharmonic 14 Nov 1943.

  • Advocated tonality as universal language; resisted strict serialism.

  • Compositional catalog (~150 items) straddles Broadway & concert hall:

    • West Side Story 1957 – Latin rhythms, jazz, symphonic complexity.

    • Candide Overture 1956, Mass 1971, film score On the Waterfront 1954.

  • Devoted later life to conducting, teaching (Young People’s Concerts).

Avant-Garde & Minimalism

  • Avant-Garde: Radically experimental, challenges existing norms, may use unconventional instruments, electronics, theater.

  • Characteristics:

    • Strange timbres (prepared piano, extended techniques).

    • Absence of regular beat; open forms.

    • Incorporation of speech, silence.

Philip Glass (born 31 Jan 1937)

  • Leading minimalist within Avant-Garde sphere.

  • Style: Repeating "cell" patterns, additive processes, gradual harmonic shifts; hypnotic, often electronic keyboards & winds.

  • Biography: NYC upbringing; trained at Juilliard & with Nadia Boulanger; influenced by Indian sitarist Ravi Shankar (additive rhythm).

  • Major works:

    • Music in Similar Motion 1969, Music in Changing Parts 1970 – ensemble pieces.

    • Einstein on the Beach 1976 – non-narrative opera with numeric chanting & visual theater.

  • Impact: Helped popularize experimental music for wider audiences, especially via film scores (Koyaanisqatsi).

Electronic Music

  • Emerged mid-20th century via new technology: synthesizers, tape recorders, amplifiers, loudspeakers.

  • Musique Concrète (Paris, 1948 Pierre Schaeffer): composes with recorded natural sounds manipulated on tape.

  • Pioneers & approaches:

    • Edgard Varèse – “organized sound” concept; Percussion & siren-like timbres.

    • Karlheinz Stockhausen – total serialism, spatial music, live electronics.

    • Mario Davidovsky – mixed tape with live players.

Edgard Varèse ("Father of Electronic Music")

  • Birth 22 Dec 1883, Paris; emigrated to USA 1915; death 06 Nov 1965, NYC.

  • Vision: All sounds qualify as musical material if organized.

  • Focus on timbre & rhythm; blurred line between music & noise.

  • Seminal works: Ionisation 1931 (percussion), Poème électronique 1958 (tape for Philips Pavilion at Brussels Expo).

Karlheinz Stockhausen (born 22 Aug 1928 – died 05 Dec 2007)

  • Cologne-based composer; absorbed teachings of Messiaen, Schoenberg, Webern.

  • Explored total serialism (control of pitch, duration, dynamics, timbre) and spatialization.

  • Key pieces: Gruppen 1957 for three orchestras placed around audience; Kontakte 1960 electronic & percussion; Helicopter String Quartet (members perform in 4 helicopters, audio transmitted live).

  • Output ~31 numbered works (many are cycles containing subsets).

Chance (Aleatoric) Music

  • Principle: Elements of composition or performance left to randomness or performer choice; each rendition differs.

  • May incorporate environmental sounds, ring modulators, random procedures (I-Ching, coin tosses).

John Cage

  • Birth 05 Sep 1912, Los Angeles; death 12 Aug 1992, NYC.

  • Redefined music to include silence & everyday noise.

  • Innovations:

    • Prepared piano (screws, rubber, paper inserted to create percussive sonorities) → Sonatas and Interludes 1946–1948.

    • Music of Changes 1951 – composition determined by I-Ching chance operations.

    • 4’33” 1952 – performer remains silent; ambient sounds constitute piece; demonstrates impossibility of total silence.

    • Happenings: frying mushrooms onstage to harvest cooking sounds.

  • Philosophical impact: Emphasized process over product; influenced dance (Merce Cunningham) and conceptual art.

  • Catalog ~229 works.

These notes interconnect stylistic developments of the 20th century: Impressionism’s coloristic genesis → Expressionism & Serialism’s abstraction → Primitivism’s rhythmic force → Neo-Classicism’s tempered return to order → Avant-Garde’s radical experimentation with electronics, minimalism, and chance. Each composer both reflected and propelled broader cultural, technological, and philosophical shifts of modernity.