20th-Century Music: Comprehensive Study Notes

Impressionism

• Early defining stylistic entry into $20$th-century music; paralleled Impressionist painting.

• Aims:

  • Suggest reality rather than depict it literally.

  • Evoke moods, colors, atmosphere; emphasize light, water, nature.

  • Listeners receive an "impression" or emotional tint, not a detailed picture.

• Musical traits (implied throughout lecture):

  • Subtle, shifting tonal centers; use of modes, whole-tone, pentatonic scales.

  • Delicate orchestration, blurred cadences, emphasis on timbre.

• Representative works & composers:

  • Claude Debussy: La Mer, Clair de Lune (within Suite Bergamasque), Prélude à l’Après-midi d’un Faune.

  • Maurice Ravel: Jeux d’Eau, Daphnis et Chloé, Boléro.

  • Other national Impressionists: Ottorino Respighi (Italy), Manuel de Falla & Isaac Albéniz (Spain), Ralph Vaughan-Williams (England).

Claude Debussy ("Father of the Modern School of Composition")

• Birth: $22$ Aug $1862$, St-Germain-en-Laye, France; died $25$ Mar $1918$, Paris (during WWI).

• Education & formative years:

  • Entered Paris Conservatory $1873$; known as an erratic pianist & rebel in harmony classes.

  • Won Prix de Rome $1884$ with cantata L’Enfant Prodigue; spent $2$ yrs study in Rome.

• Stylistic innovations:

  • Evolved traditional rules into new possibilities of harmony (parallel chords, unresolved dissonance), rhythm (flexible, speech-like), form (free, episodic), texture (layered ostinati), orchestral color (novel instrument combinations).

  • Incorporated influences: Liszt’s virtuosity, Chopin’s piano idiom, Bach’s counterpoint, Verdi’s lyricism, Javanese gamelan (heard at $1889$ Paris Exposition), Symbolist poetry.

  • Initially admired Wagner but later rejected excessive German chromaticism in favor of French subtlety.

• Mature works (selection from approx. $227$ total compositions):

  • Vocal: Ariettes Oubliées.

  • Orchestral: Prélude à l’Après-midi d’un Faune (tone poem), La Mer (atmospheric sea symphony $1905$).

  • Chamber: String Quartet in g-minor.

  • Opera: Pelléas et Mélisande $1895$ – controversial for speech-like declamation & innovative harmony.

  • Piano cycles: Images, Estampes, Suite Bergamasque (contains Clair de Lune); lightly textured, transparent sonorities.

• Legacy: Central figure for Impressionists; his approach opened doors to modernist harmonic language.

Maurice Ravel

• Birth: Ciboure, France; Basque mother, Swiss father; entered Paris Conservatory at $14$, studied under Gabriel Fauré.

• Personality & craft:

  • Perfectionist, self-proclaimed "musical craftsman".

  • Retained classical clarity, esp. ternary forms, while using extended harmonies & modal melodies.

  • Requires high virtuosity from performers.

• Stylistic profile: Innovative yet tonal (not atonal); crystalline orchestration; motivic economy; Spanish color; jazz inflections later.

• Major works chronologically:

  • Pavane pour une Infante Défunte $1899$ (slow, lyrical commemorative dance).

  • Jeux d’Eau $1901$ (sparkling water imagery for piano).

  • String Quartet $1903$.

  • Sonatine $1904$.

  • Miroirs $1905$ (five piano pieces exploring harmonic imagination).

  • Gaspard de la Nuit $1908$ – virtuosic "demonic" piano trilogy; among hardest in repertoire.

  • Rapsodie Espagnole $1907$–$1908$ – orchestral Spanish portrait.

  • Valses nobles et sentimentales $1911$.

  • Daphnis et Chloé $1912$ – ballet for Diaghilev; lush chorus, nature evocation, rhythmic diversity.

  • Le Tombeau de Couperin $1917$ – neo-Baroque homage.

  • La Valse $1920$ – swirling waltz with ominous undertone.

  • Tzigane $1922$ – violin showpiece.

  • Two piano concerti $1929$ (in G major; for left hand).

  • Boléro (premiered $1928$, composed $1927$; single inexorable crescendo over ostinato).

• Comparison with Debussy (see dedicated section).

Comparative Styles of Debussy & Ravel

• Sonic overlap: modal/whole-tone scales, coloristic orchestration, fluid textures.

• Differences:

  • Form: Debussy spontaneous, free; Ravel meticulous, classical.

  • Motives: Debussy paints broad washes; Ravel develops motives with logical precision.

  • Imagery: Debussy evocative & casual; Ravel exacting, sometimes programmatic.

  • Personality: Debussy bohemian/experimental; Ravel methodical craftsman.

Expressionism & Arnold Schoenberg

• Birth: $13$ Sep $1874$, Vienna; death $13$ Jul $1951$, Los Angeles (emigrated $1934$).

• Self-taught in theory; studied counterpoint; early influence of Wagnerian chromaticism & Brahmsian form.

• Transitional style: Late-Romantic works such as Verklärte Nacht $1899$ blending Brahms lyricism with Wagner harmonic tension (tone poem for string sextet/orchestra).

• Breakthroughs:

  • Freed dissonance from resolution (atonality, $1908$–$1920$ period).

  • Invented $12$-tone / dodecaphonic "serial" method (post-$1923$): organize pitches into orderly rows ensuring equality of all $12$ chromatic tones.

• Major works (approx. $213$ pieces):

  • Gurrelieder (massive cantata; still tonal).

  • Three Piano Pieces Op.$11$ (early atonal gestation).

  • Pierrot Lunaire $1912$: melodrama for voice & chamber ensemble using Sprechstimme; expressionist text painting.

  • Later serial: Suite for Piano Op.$25$, Variations for Orchestra Op.$31$, Moses und Aron (unfinished opera).

• Pedagogy: Teacher of Berg & Webern (Second Viennese School).

Igor Stravinsky

• Birth: $17$ Jun $1882$, Oranienbaum, Russia; death $06$ Apr $1971$, New York.

• Early mentorship under Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (colorful orchestration).

• Ballet trilogy for Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes that redefined modern music:

  1. The Firebird $1910$ – nationalistic Russian folk flavor; brilliant orchestration.

  2. Petrushka $1911$ – polytonality, shifting meters portray puppet drama.

  3. The Rite of Spring $1913$ – violent primitivism, asymmetrical rhythms, extreme dissonance; near abandonment of traditional tonality, caused premiere riot.

• Later stylistic phases: Neo-Classicism (Pulcinella, Symphony in C), Serialism (Agon).

• Output approx. $127$ works across genres.

• Considered with Schoenberg, Picasso, Joyce as $20$th-century cultural titans.

Survey of Additional $20$th-Century Styles

• Primitivism.

• Neo-Classicism.

• Avant-Garde / Minimalism.

• Modern Nationalism (e.g., Gershwin, Copland, Bartók).

• Notable nationalistic "Russian Five": Mussorgsky, Balakirev, Borodin, Cui, Rimsky-Korsakov (formative $19$th-century group whose influence carried into $20$th century).

Primitivism

• Definition: Tonal focus on single pitch or ostinati; juxtaposition of simple ideas to synthesize raw new sonorities.

• Traits:

  • Powerful, loud, drum-like rhythms.

  • Repetitive patterns, ostinati.

  • Raw, modal or pentatonic melodies; deliberate dissonance.

  • Inspiration from folk, tribal, prehistoric themes.

• Iconic exemplar: Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring.

Bela Bartók (primitivist & ethnomusicologist)

• Birth $25$ Mar $1881$, Nagyszentmiklós (now Romania); death $26$ Sep $1945$, New York.

• Pianist; studied at Budapest Royal Academy $1899$.

• Collected & recorded thousands of Hungarian, Slovak, Romanian folk songs starting $1906$; integrated modal scales & asymmetric rhythms into works.

• Key works:

  • Kossuth (symphonic poem $1903$).

  • $6$ String Quartets $1908$–$1938$ – merge dissonance with folk motifs.

  • Allegro Barbaro $1911$ – piano piece typifying primitivist power (fast, pounding, Hungarian idiom).

  • Mikrokosmos $1926$–$1939$ – $153$ graded piano pieces exploring modern techniques.

  • Concerto for Orchestra $1943$ – late American commission; showcases every orchestral section.

• Output approx. $700$ works.

• Emigrated to USA $1940$ due to WWII politics.

Neo-Classicism

• Aesthetic: Reinterprets $18$th-century clarity, balance, formal symmetry using $20$th-century harmony, rhythm, and timbre.

• Bridges Romantic excess & Expressionist turmoil; music is structured yet modern.

• Traits vs Classical era:

  • Retains clear melodies & forms but employs dissonance, irregular meters, extended chords, modern orchestration.

Sergei Prokofieff (neo-classical, nationalist, avant-garde)

• Birth $23$ Apr $1891$, Sontsovka, Ukraine; death $05$ Mar $1953$, Moscow.

• Hallmarks: Driving rhythms, memorable melodies, sarcasm, transparent form.

• Famous pieces:

  • Peter and the Wolf $1936$ – narrated children’s piece with instrumental leitmotifs.

  • Classical Symphony (Symphony No.$1$ in D, $1917$) – Haydn-like clarity with modern twists (sharper accents, sudden modulations).

  • Romeo & Juliet ballet $1935$–$1936$ – lush, dramatic.

• Style summary: Accessible yet sophisticated; fusion of old forms & new harmonies.

Francis Poulenc (member of "Les Six")

• Birth $07$ Jan $1899$, Paris; death $30$ Jan $1963$.

• Background: Wealthy family; rejected Wagnerian heaviness & Impressionist vagueness.

• Music profile: Light, witty, urbane yet capable of profound spirituality.

• Representative works:

  • Concerto for Two Pianos $1932$ – playful neo-classical dialogue.

  • Gloria $1959$ – choral/orchestral work combining exuberance & devotion.

  • Les Mamelles de Tirésias $1947$ – satirical opera.

George Gershwin (American modern nationalist / crossover)

• Birth $26$ Sep $1898$, Brooklyn; death $11$ Jul $1937$, Hollywood.

• Early success on Broadway (La La Lucille $1919$).

• Synthesized jazz rhythms with symphonic form: Rhapsody in Blue $1924$, An American in Paris $1928$.

• Opera Porgy and Bess $1935$ – landmark American folk opera.

• Influences: Ravel, Stravinsky, Berg, Schoenberg, Les Six.

• Nickname: "Father of American Jazz" for merging primitive swing with classical sophistication.

• Output approx. $369$ works across stage, film, orchestra.

Leonard Bernstein (conductor-composer-educator)

• Birth $25$ Aug $1918$, Massachusetts; death $14$ Oct $1990$.

• Instant fame: substituted at NY Philharmonic $14$ Nov $1943$.

• Advocated tonality as universal language; resisted strict serialism.

• Compositional catalog (~$150$ items) straddles Broadway & concert hall:

  • West Side Story $1957$ – Latin rhythms, jazz, symphonic complexity.

  • Candide Overture $1956$, Mass $1971$, film score On the Waterfront $1954$.

• Devoted later life to conducting, teaching (Young People’s Concerts).

Avant-Garde & Minimalism

• Avant-Garde: Radically experimental, challenges existing norms, may use unconventional instruments, electronics, theater.

• Characteristics:

  • Strange timbres (prepared piano, extended techniques).

  • Absence of regular beat; open forms.

  • Incorporation of speech, silence.

Philip Glass (born $31$ Jan $1937$)

• Leading minimalist within Avant-Garde sphere.

• Style: Repeating "cell" patterns, additive processes, gradual harmonic shifts; hypnotic, often electronic keyboards & winds.

• Biography: NYC upbringing; trained at Juilliard & with Nadia Boulanger; influenced by Indian sitarist Ravi Shankar (additive rhythm).

• Major works:

  • Music in Similar Motion $1969$, Music in Changing Parts $1970$ – ensemble pieces.

  • Einstein on the Beach $1976$ – non-narrative opera with numeric chanting & visual theater.

• Impact: Helped popularize experimental music for wider audiences, especially via film scores (Koyaanisqatsi).

Electronic Music

• Emerged $mid$-$20$th century via new technology: synthesizers, tape recorders, amplifiers, loudspeakers.

• Musique Concrète (Paris, $1948$ Pierre Schaeffer): composes with recorded natural sounds manipulated on tape.

• Pioneers & approaches:

  • Edgard Varèse – “organized sound” concept; Percussion & siren-like timbres.

  • Karlheinz Stockhausen – total serialism, spatial music, live electronics.

  • Mario Davidovsky – mixed tape with live players.

Edgard Varèse ("Father of Electronic Music")

• Birth $22$ Dec $1883$, Paris; emigrated to USA $1915$; death $06$ Nov $1965$, NYC.

• Vision: All sounds qualify as musical material if organized.

• Focus on timbre & rhythm; blurred line between music & noise.

• Seminal works: Ionisation $1931$ (percussion), Poème électronique $1958$ (tape for Philips Pavilion at Brussels Expo).

Karlheinz Stockhausen (born $22$ Aug $1928$ – died $05$ Dec $2007$)

• Cologne-based composer; absorbed teachings of Messiaen, Schoenberg, Webern.

• Explored total serialism (control of pitch, duration, dynamics, timbre) and spatialization.

• Key pieces: Gruppen $1957$ for three orchestras placed around audience; Kontakte $1960$ electronic & percussion; Helicopter String Quartet (members perform in $4$ helicopters, audio transmitted live).

• Output ~$31$ numbered works (many are cycles containing subsets).

Chance (Aleatoric) Music

• Principle: Elements of composition or performance left to randomness or performer choice; each rendition differs.

• May incorporate environmental sounds, ring modulators, random procedures (I-Ching, coin tosses).

John Cage

• Birth $05$ Sep $1912$, Los Angeles; death $12$ Aug $1992$, NYC.

• Redefined music to include silence & everyday noise.

• Innovations:

  • Prepared piano (screws, rubber, paper inserted to create percussive sonorities) → Sonatas and Interludes $1946$–$1948$.

  • Music of Changes $1951$ – composition determined by I-Ching chance operations.

  • 4’33” $1952$ – performer remains silent; ambient sounds constitute piece; demonstrates impossibility of total silence.

  • Happenings: frying mushrooms onstage to harvest cooking sounds.

• Philosophical impact: Emphasized process over product; influenced dance (Merce Cunningham) and conceptual art.

• Catalog ~$229$ works.

These notes interconnect stylistic developments of the $20$th century: Impressionism’s coloristic genesis → Expressionism & Serialism’s abstraction → Primitivism’s rhythmic force → Neo-Classicism’s tempered return to order → Avant-Garde’s radical experimentation with electronics, minimalism, and chance. Each composer both reflected and propelled broader cultural, technological, and philosophical shifts of modernity.