Melanin Review Genetics, Protein Synthesis, and Evolution Notes

Genetics

  • Punnett Squares:

    • Monohybrid crosses
    • Dihybrid crosses
    • Refer to the Genetics Packet Key for review.

  • Vocabulary:

    • Monohybrid vs. Dihybrid: Focuses on one trait versus two traits, respectively.
    • Homozygous vs. Heterozygous: Homozygous means having two identical alleles for a trait; heterozygous means having two different alleles.
    • Genotype vs. Phenotype: Genotype is the genetic makeup; phenotype is the physical expression of the trait.
    • Ratios vs. Probability: Ratio is the quantitative relation between two amounts showing the number of times a value contains or is contained within another; probability is the extent to which something is likely to occur.
    • Complete Dominance vs. Codominance vs. Incomplete Dominance: Complete dominance means one allele masks the other; codominance means both alleles are expressed; incomplete dominance means the phenotype is a blend.
    • Autosomal vs. Sex-Linked Traits: Autosomal traits are on non-sex chromosomes; sex-linked traits are on sex chromosomes.
    • Multiple Allele Traits: More than two allele options exist for a gene (e.g., blood type).
    • Polygenic Traits: Traits controlled by multiple genes.
    • Epistasis: One gene affects the expression of another gene.
    • Pedigrees: Diagrams showing the inheritance of traits across generations.
      • Be able to read, draw, and determine inheritance patterns.
    • Karyotypes: Visual representations of chromosomes.
    • Chromosomes vs. Chromatids: Chromosomes are structures containing DNA; chromatids are identical copies of a chromosome.
    • Nondisjunction Disorders: Failure of chromosomes to separate properly during cell division (e.g., Down Syndrome).
      • Example: Down Syndrome (one extra chromosome on #21).
    • Genes vs. Alleles: Genes are segments of DNA coding for a trait; alleles are different forms of a gene.
    • Haploid cells (sperm/egg) vs. Diploid cells (zygote and all other body cells): Haploid cells have half the number of chromosomes; diploid cells have the full number.

Protein Synthesis and Evolution

  • Relationship between DNA, RNA, Transcription, and Translation:
    • Explain how proteins are made and determine the traits an organism expresses.
  • Transcription/Translation Review
  • Gene Mutations:
    • Types of gene mutations and their effects on the phenotype.
    • Substitution/Point Mutations:
      • Silent: No change in amino acid sequence.
      • Missense: Changes amino acid sequence.
      • Nonsense: Results in an early STOP codon.
    • Frameshift Mutations:
      • Result from the reading frame shifting, causing multiple amino acids to be incorrect.
      • Insertion (or addition).
      • Deletion.
  • Genetic Mutations - Good or bad:
    • Explain how genetic mutations can be beneficial or detrimental.
    • Beneficial mutations are passed down through generations, leading to evolution by natural selection.
  • Organism Adaptation:
    • Explain how organisms "adapt" to an environment.
  • Natural Selection:
    • Types:
      • Directional Selection
      • Stabilizing Selection
      • Disruptive Selection (resulting in speciation due to isolation)
  • Evolutionary Patterns:
    • How types of selection contribute to different patterns of evolution.
      • Coevolution
      • Convergent Evolution
      • Divergent Evolution
  • Darwin and Natural Selection
    • Evolution Requirements:
      • Overproduction
      • Variation
      • Competition
      • Natural Selection
    • Causes of Change:
      • Mutations
      • Migration (genetic flow)
      • Non-Random Mating
      • Genetic Drift
      • Natural Selection
  • Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE):
    • Practice sheet; KEY
  • Evidence to Support Evolution
    • Comparative Anatomy:
      • Homologous Structures
      • Analogous Structures
      • Vestigial Structures
    • Comparative Embryology:
      • Development of the zygote to the organism
    • Comparative Biochemistry:
      • Looking at similarities in DNA and amino acid sequence to determine relatedness
  • HIPPO
    • Habitat loss
    • Invasive Species
    • Pollution
    • Population Growth
    • Overharvesting or overconsumption
  • Practice Resources
    • Melanin Kahoot
    • BioMan Protein Synthesis
    • BioMan Genetics and Meiosis
    • WISC Protein Synthesis