The Red River Valley and the Northwest Rebellion Practice Flashcards

The Red River Resistance and the Rise of Louis Riel

In $1868$, politicians like John A. Macdonald were deeply interested in creating a Dominion of Canada that stretched from coast to coast. To achieve this, the Canadian government and the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) signed an agreement for the transfer of Rupert's Land in November of $1867$. Even before the official transfer was complete, Canadian government surveyors arrived in the Red River Valley in $1868$ to survey the area. These actions were met with immediate resistance from the local Métis population, who feared for their land rights. Louis Riel, a $24$-year-old Métis leader who had returned to Red River from Montreal, emerged as a central figure. Riel was a lawyer, was fluent in both French and English, and was known as an excellent orator. He took on the role of leader in what would become the Red River Resistance.

The Métis established a provisional government to protect their interests, especially in the face of the arrival of William McDougall, the appointed Lieutenant Governor of the Northwest Territories. McDougall was not welcomed by the Métis, but he ignored their presence and attempted to claim authority. The Métis occupied Upper Fort Garry, seizing weapons and ammunition. During this conflict, John Schulz and $48$ of his supporters were arrested by an army of Métis and imprisoned at Fort Garry. A significant turning point occurred when the Métis executed one of their prisoners, Thomas Scott. This execution was a moment many people later regretted, and while it marked the end of immediate threats of war between the Métis and Canadians, it deeply angered the Orange Order in Ontario.

The M#00e9tis Delegation and the Birth of Manitoba

The Red River delegation arrived in Ottawa hoping to negotiate a settlement that would give the Métis control over their own province. While the delegation wanted control over public lands, John A. Macdonald refused to compromise on that specific point. Nevertheless, on May $12$, $1870$, legislation creating the province of Manitoba was passed by the House of Commons. Despite the creation of the province, Macdonald faced intense calls for justice from Ontario regarding the death of Thomas Scott. To show support for his base and to ostensibly "keep the peace," Macdonald sent a militia of $1200$ men to the Red River. Many of these militia members belonged to the Orange Order, an anti-French, anti-Catholic group. Fearing for his life, Louis Riel fled to the United States of America.

Comparative Analysis of Rights and Freedoms

A comparison between the Métis List of Rights from $1870$ and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms from $1982$ reveals significant differences in focus. Regarding fundamental freedoms, there are few similarities, as the Métis List of Rights (MLR) was primarily concerned with the control of land and the specific organization of government. In terms of democratic rights, the MLR was very specific, stating that leaders such as sheriffs and school commissioners must be elected by the people. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (CCRF) focuses on more general democratic representation. Both documents share a common theme regarding legal rights, specifically mentioning that the police must be fair. However, the CCRF provides more modern protections, such as specifying that a person cannot be detained without cause, whereas the Métis were focused on the right to elect their own police and military officers.

Equity and equality rights also show diverging paths. The Métis were primarily concerned with the rights and protections of their own people within their specific territory, while the CCRF provides a broad framework for all citizens. A major point of similarity is found in official languages; both documents advocate for the equal recognition of French and English speakers. The Métis requests were slightly more specific regarding the use of these languages in local schools and law courts, but the general principle of bilingualism remains a shared value across both eras.

Dispossession and the Scrip System

Following the events of $1870$, the Canadian government introduced "scrip," which was a piece of paper or money that could be used to certify possession of land or be exchanged for cash. This system was meant to settle Métis land claims in the Red River, but it was fraught with issues. Land speculation made it exceedingly difficult for the Métis to successfully take up land. Many Métis found life in the new province of Manitoba uncomfortable and grew frustrated with the influx of settlers. As a result, many sold their scrip to speculators for a fraction of its value and moved North and West, settling near the South Saskatchewan River. This migration was a direct response to the pressure of land speculation and the failure of the government to protect their land titles.

Life in the Northwest and the Laws of St. Laurent

In their new settlements in the Northwest, the Métis engaged in various economic activities to survive, including farming, hunting bison, and hauling freight for the Hudson's Bay Company. However, by the mid-$1870$s, they began to face severe resource depletion due to the overhunting of bison. To manage their resources and ensure survival, the Métis established the Laws of St. Laurent in $1873$. These laws were based on the traditional rules of the prairies and the bison hunt. They were incredibly strict because survival on the plains depended on collective discipline and the sustainable use of the bison herds. For example, any person or party who ran buffalo before the general order was given could have their saddle and bridle cut up for a first offense; a second offense resulted in a coat being taken and cut up, and a third offense led to flogging.

Conditions became increasingly difficult during the winter of $1874-75$ in St. Laurent primarily because of the loss of the bison. The spring of $1875$ proved to be a disaster for the community. A group of Métis began hunting bison before the official hunt had officially started. Gabriel Dumont, the leader of the hunt, arrested them according to the Laws of St. Laurent. However, Lawrence Clarke, the HBC factor at Fort Carlton, intervened. Clarke treated the Métis poorly, paying them as little as possible and making their lives as difficult as he could. He ruled that any Métis who objected to his pay scale could be imprisoned. In the instance of the bison hunt, Clarke utilized his power to have Dumont arrested and the participants fined by the Canadian authorities, effectively undermining the traditional Métis legal system.

The Decline of the Bison and the Creation of the NWMP

The massive decline in the bison population was not merely an accident of overhunting. It was part of a deliberate campaign by the American government to force First Nations onto reserves by destroying their primary food source. Hunting was also encouraged by Europeans. The Canadian government realized that the loss of the bison would lead to malnutrition, disease, and social instability among the First Nations and Métis. Additionally, American fur traders were entering the region, trading cheap, dangerous liquor known as "firewater." The resulting alcoholism and death caused fear within the Canadian government that the territory might be lost to American influence.

In response to these threats, the Canadian government created the North West Mounted Police (NWMP) in $1873$. This organization functioned as both a police force and a paramilitary organization. A police force typically enforces civil laws, while a paramilitary force acts like a military but is not formally part of the national armed forces. The NWMP's mission was to establish Canadian sovereignty, stop the whiskey trade, and prepare the region for settlement by Canadian and European immigrants.

Numbered Treaties and the Indian Act

To facilitate the settlement of the prairies, the Canadian government needed to sign treaties with the Native peoples of the Northwest. The government believed that settlement could not happen until the title to the land was settled. First Nations leaders were often reluctant to give up their land but recognized that they needed to negotiate to share the land and get the best deal they could for their people's survival. The Anishinab#00e9 and the Cree originally wanted to keep control of $60\%$ of the land in Manitoba, but they eventually settled for $160$ acres per family, which was the standard homesteader's section. Between $1871$ and $1877$, seven treaties were signed across the Northwest.

In $1876$, the government passed the Indian Act. This was a paternalistic piece of legislation designed to assimilate First Nations people into European-Canadian culture. It made First Nations people "wards" of the state, meaning the Canadian government (acting as the "father") made decisions on behalf of the Indigenous people (the "children"). While the government claimed it wanted to teach Native peoples to farm, the tools, supplies, and animals provided were consistently inadequate. Seeds were often sent too late in the season, and the oxen provided were sometimes too weak to pull plows. By $1909$, most First Nations had been forced to give up farming.

The Northwest Rebellion of 1885

By $1884$, the Métis were again in a state of distress. They saw $6.4 \text{ million hectares}$ of land in the Prairies and Northwest Territories at stake, valued at approximately $71 \text{ million dollars}$. Prime Minister John A. Macdonald had no intention of listening to Métis demands because of the potential profit from this land and his desire to build a transcontinental railway. He also reduced spending on the Indian Affairs department. Desperate for a leader, Gabriel Dumont traveled to Montana to ask Louis Riel to return. Riel, who had spent time in an asylum and become deeply religious—believing God had sent him to lead the Métis—agreed to return.

Riel and the Métis drafted the Métis Bill of Rights, which requested that the Northwest Territories enter Confederation as a province, the right to elect four Members of Parliament, control over local affairs, and the legal status of French and English. While Ottawa acknowledged the document, they never recognized it as an official legal document. Tensions rose as HBC factor Lawrence Clarke spread false rumors to both the government and the Métis. He informed the Métis that the government was sending $500$ NWMP officers to arrest Riel. This led Riel to conclude that "justice commands us to take up arms."

Military Conflict and the Trial of Louis Riel

The rebellion began on March $26$, $1885$, at Duck Lake. The Métis seized supplies at Fort Carlton, and in the ensuing confrontation, $12$ NWMP officers were killed and $25$ were wounded. The Canadian government responded by quickly mobilizing $5000$ soldiers under General Middleton. On April $24$, Dumont and the Métis successfully ambushed the soldiers at Fish Creek, where $300$ Métis stopped $1600$ Canadian soldiers. However, the superior numbers and technology of the Canadian forces, including the use of the Gatling gun, eventually overwhelmed the Métis at Batoche. After three days of fighting from May $9$ to May $12$, the Métis were forced to surrender. Gabriel Dumont fled to the USA, and Louis Riel surrendered on May $15$.

Riel was taken to Regina for trial. The government chose Regina because a trial there required only a six-man jury and was unlikely to include French-Catholics, whereas a trial in Manitoba would have required twelve jurors. Riel's lawyers wanted him to plead insanity, but Riel refused. He wanted to use the trial to highlight the irresponsibility and bad faith of the Canadian government. On August $1$, $1885$, Riel was found guilty of treason. Despite pleas for clemency, he was hanged in Regina on November $16$, $1885$.

Questions & Discussion

Question: Why would the government have wanted Riel to stand trial in Regina? Response: The government preferred Regina because the legal requirements there were different from Manitoba. In Regina, they only needed a six-man jury, and they could ensure the jury did not contain French-Catholics who might be sympathetic to Riel's cause. In Manitoba, a twelve-man jury would have likely included people who shared Riel's background and might have acquitted him.

Question: Why did Riel's lawyers want him to plead insanity? Response: His lawyers believed an insanity plea was the only way to avoid the death penalty. If he were found insane, he would be sent to an asylum rather than being executed for treason. Riel refused this because it would undermine the legitimacy of the Métis struggle; if he were insane, then the uprising and the Bill of Rights would be seen as the products of a madman rather than a legitimate political movement.

Question: What were the long-term consequences of the rebellion? Response: The consequences were devastating for both the Métis and First Nations. The Métis moved further North and West and lost their land claims, often being forced to squat on public land known as the "road allowance." The term "half-breed" became an ethnic insult. For First Nations, hundreds were arrested, and many died in jail or were hanged. The government tightened its control, viewing Indigenous people as children who required a "firm hand," and confined them more strictly to reserve lands.