Theology 1 Midterm Comprehensive Study Guide

Key Historical and Philosophical Figures

  • Abraham Maslow

    • Identity and Field: American humanistic psychologist best known for developing the Hierarchy of Needs.

    • Hierarchy of Needs: Proposed that human motivation progresses through distinct tiers: physiological needs, safety needs, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization.

    • Connection to Theology and Human Desire: Maslow later introduced the concept of self-transcendence as the highest level of human consciousness, in which an individual connects to realities beyond the self (altruism, spiritual experiences, and the infinite). In theology, this psychological framework demonstrates that human fulfillment cannot be permanently achieved through basic, physical, or material means alone, pointing to an innate orientation toward transcendent meaning.

  • St. Thomas Aquinas

    • Identity and Significance: 13th-century Dominican friar, philosopher, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church (known as the Doctor Angelicus or Angelic Doctor).

    • Scholastic Synthesis: Master of Christian Scholasticism who harmonized classical Aristotelian philosophy with Christian divine revelation, demonstrating that human reason and divine faith work in concert rather than in opposition.

    • Magnum Opus: Authored the Summa Theologiae, an exhaustive compilation of theological instruction addressing God's existence, creation, morality, Christology, and the sacraments.

    • The Quinque Viae: Formulated the celebrated "Five Proofs" or "Five Ways" (Quinque Viae), demonstrating through natural observation and deductive philosophical reason that God's existence is rationally undeniable.

  • Anthony Flew

    • Identity and Background: Prominent 20th-century British philosopher who served as one of the world's most vocal and influential academic advocates of atheism for more than five decades.

    • Theological Shift: In 2004, at the age of 81, Flew publicly announced his abandonment of atheism in favor of philosophical deism.

    • Rationale for Conversion: Articulated his conviction in the work There Is a God: How the World's Most Notorious Atheist Changed His Mind. His change of mind was driven by modern scientific discoveries, particularly the immense, information-dense complexity of the DNA molecule, fine-tuning of cosmological constants, and the laws of nature, concluding that an intelligent, supreme intellect must have authored the cosmos.

  • St. Jerome

    • Identity and Era: 4th-to-5th-century Christian priest, confessor, theologian, and Doctor of the Church (c. 347–420 AD).

    • The Latin Vulgate: Commissioned by Pope Damasus I to translate the entirety of Sacred Scripture from its original languages (Hebrew and Aramaic for the Old Testament, Greek for the New Testament) into the common vernacular Latin. This translation became known as the Vulgate, serving as the official biblical text of the Western Catholic Church for over a millennium.

    • Foundational Maxim: Famous for the theological declaration: "Ignorance of Scripture is ignorance of Christ," underscoring that a personal, authentic relationship with Jesus Christ requires engagement with the inspired written Word.

Fundamental Theological Terms and Concepts

  • Innate Desire

    • Definition: An intrinsic, inborn longing woven directly into human nature that cannot be extinguished, conditioned out of existence, or fully satisfied by finite, material reality.

    • Theological Context: Human beings are inherently religious beings created by God and for God. As articulated by St. Augustine of Hippo: "You have made us for yourself, O Lord, and our heart is restless until it rests in you." Earthly goods provide transient happiness, but the infinite nature of human desire points to an infinite object: God.

  • Divine Revelation

    • Definition: God's direct, supernatural self-disclosure to humanity, whereby He unveils the mystery of His divine plan, nature, and loving will.

    • Characteristics: Transmitted through deeds and words in human history; transcends what human reason could discover on its own; culminates fully and definitively in the Incarnation of Jesus Christ.

  • Natural Revelation

    • Definition: The process through which God makes Himself known to human reason through the created order, the natural universe, and human intellect without supernatural intervention.

    • Mechanism: Through observing the order, beauty, complexity, and physical laws of nature, as well as the universal moral conscience, human beings can arrive with certainty at the knowledge of God as the First Cause and Creator of all things.

  • Public Revelation

    • Definition: The universal self-disclosure of God intended for all people, across all places and generations, necessary for human salvation.

    • Scope and Finality: Began with creation, unfolded through the patriarchs, prophets, and covenants of the Old Testament, and reached its complete and definitive fulfillment in Jesus Christ. Public revelation formally concluded with the death of the last Apostle (St. John).

  • Private Revelation

    • Definition: Supernatural communications, visions, messages, or apparitions granted to private individuals or groups after the completion of public revelation (e.g., revelations to St. Bernadette at Lourdes or the shepherd children at Fátima).

    • Theological Status: Private revelations do not belong to the deposit of faith. They cannot improve, alter, correct, or complete the definitive public revelation of Christ; their role is solely to help believers live out public revelation more fully within a specific historical period.

  • Sacred Tradition

    • Definition: The living transmission of the Gospel message and divine truth in the Church, originating from the preaching, life, and worship of the Apostles under the guidance of the Holy Spirit.

    • Transmission: Handed down orally, liturgically, and pastorally through unbroken Apostolic Succession; distinct from, yet intimately united with, Sacred Scripture to form a single sacred deposit of the Word of God.

  • Written Tradition

    • Definition: The stage in the formation of the Bible where oral traditions, eyewitness testimonies, and divine revelations were fixed into writing under the supernatural inspiration of the Holy Spirit.

    • Function: Safeguards divine revelation from historical drift, distortion, and human forgetfulness, resulting in the canonical texts of Sacred Scripture.

  • Covenant

    • Definition: A sacred, solemn, binding oath establishing a kinship bond between God and human beings (or between humans invoking God as witness).

    • Distinction from Contracts: A contract is a temporary, legal exchange of goods or services ("this is yours, that is mine"), whereas a covenant is an unconditional, permanent exchange of persons ("I am yours, and you are mine"), involving reciprocal blessings and obligations.

  • Scribe

    • Definition: In biblical antiquity, professional scholars, copyists, and jurists trained in reading, writing, meticulously transcribing, and interpreting the Law of Moses (Torah).

    • Function in Scripture: Played a central role in preserving, copying, and transmitting biblical manuscripts letter-by-letter without error, later serving as legal and theological authorities in Jewish society.

  • Apparition

    • Definition: An extraordinary, visible, supernatural appearance of an entity normally unseen by human eyes—most commonly Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary, an angel, or a saint—to a person or group on earth.

    • Evaluation: Investigated rigorously by Church authority to determine whether it is of supernatural origin, free from theological and moral error, and spiritually worthy of belief.

  • Trinitarian God

    • Definition: The central dogma and fundamental mystery of Christian faith that there is only one true God who exists eternally as a communion of three distinct, consubstantial Persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.

    • Theological Precision: They are not three gods, nor are they three temporary modes or masks of one God; each Person possesses the entire, undivided divine nature while being distinct solely in their relations of origin.

  • Salvation History

    • Definition: The historical unfolding of God's redemptive activity and presence within human events to save humanity from sin and restore communion with Him.

    • Chronology: Encompasses the entire biblical narrative: Creation, the Fall (Original Sin), the series of Old Testament covenants (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David), the Prophetic period, the Incarnation and Paschal Mystery of Jesus Christ, the Church age, and the final eschatological consummation.

  • Religious Truth

    • Definition: The deeper, theological, and spiritual truths that God intended to convey through Scripture concerning faith, morals, salvation, and the human relationship with the divine.

    • Distinction from Literal/Scientific Detail: Religious truth does not require the biblical texts to conform to modern standards of empirical science or literalistic historiography; rather, it guarantees that the theological meaning of the text is true and dependable for salvation.

  • Inerrancy

    • Definition: The doctrine that Sacred Scripture, in its original manuscripts and properly interpreted according to its literal and spiritual senses, teaches without error the truths necessary for salvation.

    • Foundational Basis: Because God is the primary author of Scripture who inspired human authors, and because God can neither deceive nor be deceived, the Bible is free from error regarding religious truth and saving faith.

  • Magisterium Definition

    • Definition: The living, authoritative teaching office and authority of the Catholic Church.

    • Composition: Entrusted exclusively to the Pope (the successor of St. Peter) and the college of bishops in communion with him.

  • Magisterium's Role in Scripture

    • Servant, Not Master: The Magisterium is not superior to the Word of God, but acts as its dedicated servant, listening to it devoutly, guarding it scrupulously, and explaining it faithfully.

    • Interpretation and Guidance: Possesses the God-given authority to authentically and definitively interpret Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition, preserving believers from error and resolving theological disputes concerning the meaning of texts.

  • Kerygma

    • Definition: Greek term (κη~ρυγμα\kappa \tilde{\eta}\rho \upsilon \gamma \mu \alpha) signifying the initial, core proclamation or announcement of the Gospel message to non-believers.

    • Core Elements: Proclaims that God's promises in the Old Testament are fulfilled: God sent His only Son, Jesus Christ, who preached the Kingdom, was crucified for the forgiveness of sins, rose bodily from the dead on the third day, ascended into heaven, and now calls all people to repentance, baptism, and faith.

Theological Classifications and Biblical Reference Tools

  • The Four Essential Bible Tools

    • 1. Bible Concordance: An alphabetical index of all words found in Sacred Scripture, listing every biblical passage and verse where each specific word appears to facilitate comparative study.

    • 2. Bible Commentary: A scholarly, theological, and historical reference book providing verse-by-verse or chapter-by-chapter analysis, cultural context, and doctrinal explanations of biblical texts.

    • 3. Bible Dictionary / Encyclopedia: An alphabetical reference guide providing comprehensive background entries, definitions, and articles on biblical individuals, places, historical events, theological themes, and cultural customs.

    • 4. Bible Atlas: A specialized reference collection of historical and geographical maps, topographical surveys, relief illustrations, and timelines tracking migration routes, battles, and kingdom borders throughout salvation history.

  • Theological Worldviews: Monotheism, Atheism, and Pantheism

    • Monotheism:

      • The philosophical and religious belief in the existence of only one singular, transcendent, personal, supreme God who is the Creator of all reality (exemplified by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam).

    • Atheism:

      • The disbelief in, intellectual denial of, or total rejection of the existence of any God, supreme deity, or supernatural divine being.

    • Pantheism:

      • The philosophical and spiritual belief that God and the physical universe are identical; everything that exists is an aspect of God, and God is not an independent, personal, transcendent Creator distinct from creation ("God is all, and all is God").

Divine Self-Disclosure and Human Longing

  • Four Ways God Reveals Himself

    • 1. Through Creation / Nature:

      • God reveals His power, majesty, order, and beauty through the material universe. Natural revelation allows humans to discern the existence and invisible attributes of God by observing the physical world.

    • 2. Through the Human Person / Conscience:

      • God reveals Himself through the inner life of the human person: our longing for infinite truth and love, our capacity for moral goodness, and the voice of conscience echoing God's moral law written on the human heart.

    • 3. Through Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition:

      • God reveals Himself through the historical narrative of Salvation History, through the words of the prophets, the written canon of the Old and New Testaments, and the living tradition guarded by the Church.

    • 4. Through Jesus Christ (The Incarnation):

      • The definitive, perfect, and absolute summit of revelation. Jesus Christ is the Word made flesh (Logos); to see Him is to see the Father. In Christ, God reveals His identity, character, and saving love completely.

  • The Five Inborn Desires That Point to God

    • 1. The Desire for Perfect Truth:

      • Human intellect constantly seeks knowledge, answers, and understanding. No amount of finite, factual information can ever satisfy the human mind, pointing to an ultimate, uncreated Truth that fulfills our intellectual capacity.

    • 2. The Desire for Perfect Love:

      • The human heart seeks unconditional, unwavering, and eternal love. Every earthly relationship is imperfect, pointing to a yearning for a Perfect Lover who loves unconditionally and without end.

    • 3. The Desire for Perfect Justice (or Goodness):

      • Humans possess an innate moral outrage at injustice and an unquenchable desire for absolute fairness and moral rectitude. Earthly courts and systems are consistently flawed, pointing toward a transcendent, ultimate Standard of Justice.

    • 4. The Desire for Perfect Beauty:

      • Experiences of aesthetic beauty (e.g., a sunset, art, music) captivate humans but leave a lingering longing for something deeper. Physical beauty points beyond itself to the source of all splendor: Perfect Beauty itself.

    • 5. The Desire for Perfect Being (or Perfect Home / Inner Peace):

      • Humans experience an underlying sense of alienation and a longing for ultimate belonging, safety, peace, and wholeness. This unshakeable desire indicates that our true home is not found in the transient physical world, but in eternal union with God.

St. Thomas Aquinas's Five Proofs for the Existence of God

  • 1. The Argument from Motion (The Unmoved Mover / The First Mover)

    • Observation: In the physical universe, objects are in motion (changing from potentiality to actuality).

    • Premise: Whatever moves is moved by something else; an object cannot move itself.

    • Logic: An infinite regress of movers is impossible, for if there were no initial mover, there would be no subsequent motion at all.

    • Conclusion: There must exist an uncaused, original source of all motion who moves everything else without being moved by anything: this everyone understands to be God.

  • 2. The Argument from Efficient Causality (The First Cause / Uncaused Cause)

    • Observation: In the physical world, there is an order of efficient causes; nothing can be the cause of its own existence, because to cause itself, it would have to exist prior to itself, which is impossible.

    • Premise: You cannot have an infinite regress of efficient causes, because removing the cause removes the effect.

    • Conclusion: There must exist a first efficient cause that was not caused by anything prior: this uncaused First Cause is God.

  • 3. The Argument from Contingency (The Necessary Being)

    • Observation: Natural things are contingent—they are capable of being and not being; they are generated, exist for a time, and perish.

    • Premise: If everything were merely contingent (capable of not existing), then at one point, given infinite time, absolutely nothing would have existed. If nothing once existed, nothing could ever have begun to exist, and nothing would exist now.

    • Conclusion: Not all beings can be contingent; there must exist a being whose existence is intrinsically necessary, not dependent on any other entity for its existence: this Necessary Being is God.

  • 4. The Argument from Degree / Gradation (The Supreme Standard / Perfection)

    • Observation: Things in the world exhibit varying degrees of qualities—some things are truer, better, more noble, or more beautiful than others.

    • Premise: Terms of comparison ("more" or "less") are measured in relation to a maximum standard (e.g., something is hotter the closer it approaches that which is hottest).

    • Conclusion: There must exist something that is the absolute pinnacle, maximum, and perfect embodiment of being, goodness, truth, and beauty, which serves as the cause and standard of these perfections in all other things: this is God.

  • 5. The Teleological Argument (The Argument from Design / Governance of the World)

    • Observation: Non-intelligent natural bodies and objects act toward an end or goal (telos), functioning in consistent, orderly patterns to obtain the best results.

    • Premise: Things that lack intelligence cannot direct themselves toward an end unless they are guided by an intelligent being possessing knowledge (as an arrow is directed toward its target by an archer).

    • Conclusion: An intelligent Being must exist by whom all natural things are directed and governed toward their respective ends: this intelligent Designer is God.

New Testament Formation and the Synoptic Gospels

  • The Synoptic Gospels

    • Etymology: The word "synoptic" derives from the Greek compound word synopsis (συˊν\sigma \acute{\upsilon}\nu meaning "together" and oˊψις\acute{o}\psi \iota \varsigma meaning "seeing" or "view"), translating literally to "seen with the same eye" or "viewed together."

    • The Canonical Synoptic Gospels: Matthew, Mark, and Luke.

    • Characteristics: These three Gospels share a remarkably similar overarching narrative structure, chronology, vocabulary, parables, and presentation of the ministry of Jesus.

    • Contrast with the Fourth Gospel: Distinct from the Gospel of John, which was written later, features a deeply theological and symbolic style, omits standard parables, and emphasizes Jesus' discourses and identity through extended philosophical reflection.

  • Three Reasons Why the New Testament Was Written Down

    • 1. The Death of the Eyewitnesses and Apostles:

      • In the earliest decades after the Resurrection, the Gospel was proclaimed through living, spoken apostolic preaching under the expectation of an imminent Parousia (Second Coming). As the original Apostles and eyewitnesses grew elderly or were martyred (such as Peter and Paul in Rome), the urgent need arose to commit their firsthand testimonies to permanent writing before their voices were lost.

    • 2. Combating Theological Distortions, Heresies, and Error:

      • As the Christian message expanded rapidly across the Roman world, misleading oral accounts, doctrinal distortions, and early heretical interpretations began to emerge. A written, authoritative apostolic record was required to serve as the definitive standard (canon) to protect orthodoxy and preserve genuine Christian doctrine.

    • 3. The Need for Universal Instruction, Liturgy, and Church Growth:

      • As the Church multiplied across widespread geographic regions, it was impossible for the original leaders to visit every community simultaneously. Written texts became indispensable for catechizing new converts, standardizing worship and readings in liturgical gatherings, and maintaining theological unity across distant Christian communities.