Module 2: SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS: FAMILY, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION
Family
What is a family? A family is a group of people who are related, either by blood, marriage or adoption, living within the same household.
Types of Families
Nuclear Family: comprises two married adults living together, a man and a woman, as well as their kids, sharing a single residence.
Parsons argues that this is the most ideal family structure. However, due to history this has been altered in the Caribbean and could be broken into:
Common law union: The two adults are not joint by marriage. Laws have been created to recognise common law unions in the Caribbean.
Visiting union: This is when the mother and children live separately from the father, who will visit from time to time/ vice versa.
The universality of nuclear family
Murdock conducted a study in 250 societies and concluded that universally, the nuclear family was the ideal family structure. He defines family as âa social group characterised by living together, economic teamwork, and procreation." In addition to one or more of the sexually residing adults' own or adopted children, it comprises adults of both sexes, at least two of whom continue to engage in socially acceptable sexual relationships.â
Murdockâs position on the universality of the nuclear family is falsified by the:
matrifocal family structure in the Caribbean
Polygamy in West Africa
Same-sex families in industrialised nations
The kibbutzim system in Israel.
The Nyar tribe in India, for example, which were matrilineal, and the institution of Western marriage is ignored (women enter more than one short-term relationships).
Extended Family: The extended family is made up of people other than a mother, father, and children, meaning it goes beyond the nuclear family. Yes, it may include grandparents, cousins, aunts, and uncles all residing in the same home. It is shown in 3 ways.
Vertically extended consists of three or more generations (grandparents, parents and children) living in the same household or nearby.'
Horizontally extended involves relations such as aunts, uncles, cousins, etc. (relations of the same generation as the parents).
Modified-extended refers, to the idea that wider family members keep in regular touch with each other. This may be both in the form of spending time together and when that is not possible, using email, texting and phone conversations to remain close (Gordon, 1972)
Single parent: A single-parent family has only one parent and his/her children. This generally happens for different reasons including death, divorce and choice. Historically, this is seen in the Caribbean when fathers abandon their children which results in matrifocality.
Reconstituted family: This is a family that is established when two different families come together through marriage. One of the spouses may have been broken through the death of a spouse or divorce. Hence, upon marriage, a spouse or both spouses bring into the new family a child or children from former relationships.
 These families have several advantages such as parental guidance for children and financial support/stability.
Sibling family: This is a family in which younger children are left in the care of older children and the parents are absent from the household. In the Caribbean, this is often due to migration in which parents leave children to seek employment opportunities in more developed countries.
Features of Caribbean families
Afro-Caribbean families
the absence of fathers
grandmother-dominated households
characterized by the marital, common-law and visiting union
normally matrifocal
Indo-Caribbean families
stress roles of the members: father is the authority figure, provider and head of the family, mother is the caretaker, and children bring honour to the household and take care of parents in old age
Great emphasis on the extended family structure
strong adherence to traditional Indian values, customs and religions
Chinese-Caribbean families
Retain the cultures, traditions and customs of China
provide education for all their children but favour sons over daughters
families are very stable and isolated from others
extended in nature
Diversity within Caribbean families
African Retentions â African slaves carried their family patterns to the Caribbean, such as polygamy and extended households, but had to modify them due to the effects of slavery. For example, matrifocality in the Caribbean can be blamed on the fact that in West Africa, men practised polygamy, but in the Caribbean, they could not take care of their many children and abandoned the homeâMelville Herskovits (1958)
Plantation Slavery: Planters rejected legal unions and encouraged extended householdsâR.T. Smith (1956)
Changing roles of Caribbean women
Poverty and socio-economic conditions
Indentureship
Theoretical perspectives of the family
Functionalism (Murdock and Parsons)
takes into account the functions of the family and how they affect societal agreement and order.
Functionalists believe the family plays an important part in maintaining social stability by performing essential functions.
Murdock argues that in all societies, the family performs four basic functions
stable satisfaction of the sex drive
reproduction of the next generation
socialization of the young
satisfaction of economic needs.
Parsons argued that the modern nuclear family performs two basic functions
primary socialization
the stabilization of adult personalities.
According to functionalists, the family is an essential social institution because it serves several purposes necessary for society to continue. These functions are:
Reproduction: fulfilling the âsex needâ for cohabitating adults and having children to replenish the population
Educational: early socialization for children; assisting the school in continuing education at home; supervising children and giving them advice, etc
Economic: provision of money and goods to satisfy the basic needs of its members
Cultural: the transmission of culture from one generation to another; the creation of new cultures; the preservation of traditions, customs and values
Socialisation: teaches children values, norms and cultures
Identity: sense of belonging, sense of self
Marxists Perspective
Marxism takes into account how exploitative families lead to social conflict and turmoil. Marxists believe that the ruling class (bourgeoisie) shapes social structures to take advantage of the working class (proletariat). The ruling class gains from the family.
Eli Zaretsky (1976) argues that the family unit acts as a support to the capitalist system. The capitalists benefit from the unpaid labour rendered by women and children within the unit.
The Feminists argue that the Marxists ignore the oppression of women in the family. The functionalists argue that they failed to see the value and positive elements of the family.
Marxists have the view that the family perpetuates inequality by
The family is generally patriarchal, and this ensures gender inequality
There is often great emphasis on gender roles
Breakdown of the family (REASONS FOR DIVORCE)
Less stigma (disgrace) is attached to divorce
The changing roles of Caribbean women have altered the perception of what a wife might expect from a marriage
People's concepts of family and divorce have changed (social change)
Reasons for Matrifocality in the Caribbean
These are family structures where women are the head of the household and men are absent. Such families are prevalent to the Caribbean. Ellis (2003) notes that up to 18% of Caribbean families are maternal.
Factors that led to more prevalence of matrifocality in the Caribbean
African Retention: Melville Herskovits (1958) believed that African slaves had retained much of their cultural heritage, including the practice of polygamy, where the father or the husband was marginal in this unit.
The effect of plantation slavery: Matrifocality is dominant in the Caribbean because of the legacy of slavery. Under slavery, stable family life was impossible since males were sold to break the unions. As a result, males tended to be marginal in the relationship, and this trend has persisted after emancipation.
The changing roles of women in the Caribbean: Led to men being marginalised and unable to cope as their role has been undermined
Economic status: The males are unable to support the family economically. As a result, they are unable to meet their responsibilities of fatherhood. Matrifocality is a characteristic of the subculture of poverty. Matrifocality is linked to lower-class families and the existence of poverty.
Issues affecting the Caribbean family
Domestic Violence: Women and children are most often the victims, due to their dependence on the male adult breadwinners.
Women with fewer skills and education are usually less independent, have fewer options, and therefore tend to remain in abusive relationships longer.
Also, teenagers growing up in homes where they lack adequate love, care, and attention may be lured into early sexual encounters, thereby leading to teenage pregnancies. Such youngsters may subsequently end up in abusive relationships themselves.
Some reasons for domestic violence is
alcohol and drug addiction with inadequate facilities for treatment
the increasing violence in society in general
the increase in drug trafficking and gun violence
The changing role of women and men
In families, the roles have reversed, and more women are becoming the breadwinners of the family. More men are also starting to take on a more domestic role. These changes are seen because of:
Educational Changes
Women have greater opportunities to improve their education. Many can gain access to higher education and, therefore, gain jobs previously held by men.
Family size
Family size is affected since working women tend to have children late in life (after being established in their careers), and as a result, they have fewer children. Increased focus on their careers also means a smaller family size.
This relates to "intentional acts that cause children to suffer physical or emotional harm."
Types of Abuse
Physical abuse: intentional acts of aggression, such as scolding, flogging, or using force, are considered physical abuse when they are intended to cause the child either short-term or long-term pain or distress.
Sexual abuse: engaging children in sexual activity, introducing them to pornography, and using them for pornographic purposes.
The severity of sexual activity varies, ranging from inappropriate fondling and touching to actual sexual actions against children.Emotional abuse: Emotional abuse including verbal abuse, confinement, and isolation
Neglect: is the failure to provide for a child's fundamental physical needs, whereas emotional neglect happens when a parent or other carer doesn't provide for a child's desire for comfort and affection.
Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation has an impact on the kinds of families that are seen all over the world. As previously noted, the conventional nuclear family type has come under scrutiny due to the rising Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) community and the legalisation of same-sex weddings in several European, North American, South African, and Argentinean nations.
One definition of homophobia is an excessive or irrational dislike or hatred.
or a phobia of homosexuals, which can lead to physical, mental, and psychological violence.Arguments for same-sex marriage
Homosexuals are people with feelings, and emotions and have the right to live accordingly.
Marriage is a basic human right that should be considered a private affair.
Same-sex marriages can meet the functions of the family as other family types are
Teenage pregnancy
In many countries, teenage pregnancy carries a social stigma when it occurs outside of marriage, especially if the girl is still at schoolâsuch stigmatization and labelling present additional challenges for the teenager and her parents.
Religion
According to Tischler (2002), religion may be defined as a âsystem of beliefs, practices, and philosophical values shared by a group.
Types of Belief Systems
Animism: Animism is the belief in spirits or ghosts that are believed to coexist with humans in the world.
Like the belief in the supernatural, the spirits associated with animism can inhabit both animate beings such as humans and animals and inanimate things such as water, and the wind.
The spirits are usually associated with either good or evil.
Monotheism: The belief that only one God exists
Polytheism: The belief that multiple Gods exist
Naturism: a religious practice that focuses on the worship of nature spirits and the natural world
Organisation of Religious Groups
Church
Churches are religious organizations that have become institutionalized. Societyâs norms and values support them and have become an active part of the affairs of society. Features of a church are:
It tends to be large, with inclusive membership;
It usually supports the current state
It is well-established, with a bureaucratic structure and hierarchy
Denomination
A denomination is a large mainstream religious organisation. Examples are Methodists and Lutherans. The following features are:
Has beliefs and values widely accepted
usually connected to a church
have no formal connection to the state
Worship is less formal
Sect
These are religious organizations that have different religious beliefs from a larger religion. Examples of these are the Shakers, who reject sexual relations, and nineteenth-century Mormonism, which rejected monogamy. Some of the characteristics of a sect are:
has a small, exclusive membership
is usually in high tension with society
is usually formed as a result of a split from a church
has a negative relationship with the other institutions in society
Cult
A cult is a religious organisation that is independent of the religious traditions of a society and uses psychological manipulation. Examples of cults include Scientology. Some features of a cult are:
Introduce a new, different religious tradition
are innovative
loose and short-lived
appeal to the lower socio-economic groups
Theoretical Perspectives
Functionalism
Durkheim is of the view that religion is key to the reproduction and maintenance of social order in society.
Durkheim was of the view that God and Society are the same thing. The worship of God is the worship of society. Religion is a conservative force that keeps order rather than promotes social change.
Durkheim felt that religion was functional to both people and society as a whole. People benefited from the rituals and beliefs that accompanied religious activities, which provided a form of comfort and peace, especially in times of need and hardship.
Malinowski's views differ from Durkheim's in the case that:
He does not see religion as reflecting society as a whole
he does not see religious rituals as the worship of society.
Criticism of the functionalist perspective
religion is known to bring a lot of social conflicts and has in the past promoted numerous wars.
Weber is of the view that religion is a source of change.
Failed to consider secularization â if religion is losing its significance, how can it be a tool of social consensus?
Marxism
Religion is seen as an illusion
Marx was of the view that religion was a tool employed by the ruling class to maintain their position. Religion is the âopiumâ of the people. It has the effects of a drug.
Marxists promote the view that suffering and poverty are natural and that God will one day bring people to a place of riches.
Criticisms of Marxism
They failed to take into account secularization. If religion is losing its force, then how can it be a tool of control?
There is evidence that religion promotes consensus and is a tool of good social change eg. Martin Luther King relied on religion to gain rights for Blacks in the USA.
Interactionism
Religion is socially constructed (rituals, symbols and beliefs)
Religion helps people to define themselves but because of class, gender, race and other factors, people experience religion differently.
Max Weber believed religion could be a force for social change.
Weber made the case that the Protestant Reformation cleared the path for the growth of industrial capitalism in Western Europe in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905).
He determined that predestination, the idea of a calling, and rationality are three crucial tenets of Protestantism. Predestination refers to people looking for indications that they are either saved or damned by God. The idea of calling highlights the necessity of working hard to win God's approval. Rationalism, a way of salvation, is the last facet of Protestantism.
Feminism
Jean Holm argued that, although many religions stress equality between men and women, in practice, women have been given subordinate roles.
By promising them equality in heaven, religion can be used by oppressors (men) to manipulate the oppressed (women) and as a means of making up for their inferior status. This contributes to the continuation of the current order that discriminates against women.
Historical Development of Caribbean Religions
Pre-Columbian Era (up to the late 1400s) â Taino and Kalinago people believed in spiritualism and ritualism
Early 1500s â Spanish colonialization which led to the introduction of Christianity (particularly, Roman Catholicism)
The early 1600s â English colonization which expanded Christianity (particularly, Anglicanism)
1600s- 1800s- Other Europeans facing religious persecution in Europe came to the Caribbean e.g., Huguenots, Calvinists etc
1600s-1800s- African slaves took their religious beliefs to the Caribbean but were punished for practising them. They merged them with Christian beliefs to create hybrid religions
In the post-emancipation period, the Africans expanded their religion: Voodoo, Revivalism, and Rastafarism which became religions with their own norms and values.
Early 1800s â Asians came to the Caribbean during indentureship and brought with them Hinduism, Islam and Buddhism â Guyana, Suriname Trinidad and Jamaica
Early 1900s â People from the Middle East (Syria etc) came to the Caribbean
fleeing from religious persecution and taking their religion with them, such as Islam and Sikhism
Religions in the Caribbean
Christianity brought by the Europeans
Orisha (Trinidad and Tobago)
Vodun/ Voodoo (Haiti)
Pocomania (Jamaica)
Rastafarianism (Jamaica)
Issues associated with religion
Religious prejudice: A preconceived idea or opinion about a religion that is not supported by logic or experience.
Religious discrimination: The unfair treatment of an individual or group because of their religious beliefs.
Religious intolerance: The inability to accept religious ideas, practices, or viewpoints that differ from one's religion.
Secularisation: Secularisation is the process by which religion loses its
social significance in society.
Education
Education is the social institution guiding a societyâs transmission of knowledge â including basic facts, job skills, and also cultural norms and values â to its members (Macionis 2003).
Institutions such as schools provide formal education. The formal system of education comprises schools, colleges, and other institutions created and legally sanctioned for the process of deliberate instruction. It is governed by a standardized curriculum and delivered by trained professionalsâteachers, lecturers, and professors.
Sometimes knowledge may be transmitted unplanned and unstructured, without any fixed programme of study or evaluation. This constitutes informal education. Such learning may take place in family settings, religious services, etc.
Theoretical Perspectives
Functionalism
Functionalists believe that schools socialise children into society's norms and values and enable them to play useful roles.
According to Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parson (1961), schools serve as secondary socialisation institutions that guarantee social reproduction and order.
Parson goes on to say that the school serves as a link between society and the family. Students learn universal traits such as competition, achievement and equality. Additionally, students acquire the skills necessary to function in an industrial society.
Criticisms of the functionalist view
Education sometimes does not correlate with the roles fulfilled by people in society. Some job requirements are not met by the curriculum in schools.
Education can stress competition among students which causes conflict and undermines solidarity'
Marx argues that education transmits the values of the ruling class
Education is not always meritocratic. Schools donât always focus on children and their talents but can restrict them based on gender or class which can undermine their abilities.
Meritocracy: a social system in which people's success in life depends primarily on their talents, abilities, and effort rather than wealth or social background.
Marxism
Marxists believe that education reproduces conflict and inequality
It ensures cultural reproduction as the capitalists impose their beliefs on the working class through the hidden curriculum. The hidden curriculum consists of those things that students indirectly learn through the experience of attending school, rather than the stated educational objectives of such institutions.
How the hidden curriculum manifests itself
It encourages an acceptance of the social hierarchy/ inequality.
At school, students learn to be motivated by external rewards just as the workforce in a capitalist society is motivated by external reward s
It produces a submissive workforce of uncritical, passive and docile workers â the school prepares students for the workforce.
Bowles and Gintis (1976) further argue that the school is a mechanism of social control which prepares students for the workforce. School is equivalent to work. This is called the correspondence principle.
Criticisms of Marxism
Education can produce diversity rather than inequality
Critical subject areas such as math, business, and entrepreneurship, are taught in school
There is evidence that education can bring about unity and order in society through the transmission of rules, norms and values
Interactionism
Interactionists are concerned with teachers' perceptions of pupils. Their examination of education is based on what is observed in the classroom. (Marxism and Functionalism focus on education on society while interactions focus on the individuals)
Kituse and Cicourel (1963) believe that teachers respond to students based on how they look and treat them differently.
Howard Becker (1963) looks at the labelling of students, (good, bad or dull) and argues that this affects studentâs performance because they accept their labels. Labels such as âlearning disabilityâ and âgiftedâ have effects on students.
Criticisms of Interactionism
ignore external factors that could affect the performance of students in schools such as parental interest, diet, parental income, housing conditions etc
They have not explained how teachers form their different perspectives of students
Development of Education in the Caribbean
The education system was shaped by the history of the region. Important historical events such as colonisation and slavery created a European-dominated structure.
The development of education in the Caribbean can be discussed in:
Pre- Emancipation
During slavery, education was only offered to whites. They never offered education to the enslaved because:
They believed teaching them reading and writing may have resulted in revolts
offering education created heavy economic costs since it meant labourers spending time away from the plantation.
Until the 1820s, most slaves went without formal education and it was with the help of the missionaries that some were taught to read and write.
Post- Emancipation
The black population saw education as an instrument which could be used for their children to achieve economic and social advancement in society. Because of this, there was a greater demand for education.
There were many difficulties for freed people who wanted to gain an education.
educational facilities were poor. The colonial leaders felt that it was useless to develop schools and favoured an uneducated workforce.
The Baptist missionaries who created free villages helped to develop schools and as the ex-slaves became wealthy through peasantry, they had a strong desire to educate their children.
Saw an increase in secondary schools and further amendments as more Caribbean people were able to seek educational opportunities!!!
Political Independence
By the 1940s, regional unity led to the development of the University of the West Indies, founded in 1948, which changed the face of education in the region.
Improved access to education enhances the learning system and creates opportunities to advance individuals and their knowledge. Society would grow with people filled with educated and hard-working individuals.
Establishment and Expansion
Decolonisation
Many white people chose to return to Britain as the student population changed. Educational systems remained âEurocentricâ, using European languages, dress and examination models.
Because of this, CARICOM nations formed CXC (Caribbean Examination Council), CSEC and CAPE, to replace British examinations. These exams were deemed more culturally appropriate.
Increased teacherâs colleges (Mico University, St. Josephâs Teachers College) leading to better-educated teachers
Education in the 21st century
The 21st century has responded to societal shifts. It provides students of new and innovative ways of learning skills and thriving in todayâs society.
Examples of Distance Learning
Online degree programs
online classes
webinars
Use of Modern Technology
Gamification (Booklet)
Smart boards
E-learning platforms
Digital classrooms
Advantages of Modern Technology
Engagement: Interactive learning makes learning more engaging and enjoyable
Access to information: The internet provides students with a large amount of learning materials.
Disadvantages of Modern Technology
Distraction and Misuse: The use of devices in the classroom can lead to distractions, such as using social media (guilty I fearâŚ)
Lack of devices: Not everyone has access to a device or internet and they can be costly.
Issues in Caribbean Education
A mismatch between the graduates and the available jobs
High incidence of illiteracy and numeracy
Education and Gender
The underachievement of boys in Caribbean schools
Female bias in schools: Applewhaite, 1998 states teachers tend to treat girls better than boys and expect more from them.
The co-educational education system: Boys tend to perform better in single-sex schools and not co-educational schools (Hunte, 2002)
Why are girls outperforming boys?
Peer groups significantly impact female achievement. Girls tend to have a mutual interest in learning, as opposed to boys.
Girls are socialised to accept educational opportunities. Girls expect more from themselves than boys do.
Increasing job opportunities for girls encourages them to enter into fields once male-dominated, e.g. law, economics, business, accounting and science
Reasons for girlâs underachievement
Early socialisation: Different parenting styles contributed towards girlâs preferences for less âprestigiousâ (dem so lie and stink !!!) subjects such as needlework and home economics. Practices include play activities using different toys (e.g. boys use guns and trucks while girls play with dolls and soft toys).
Lowering the self-concept: Underestimating girlsâ abilities which allows boys to dominate in class discussions, ignoring girlsâ contributions and minimising their presence in the classroom.
Reasons for Girls improved performance in schools
Legislation: governments have passed anti-discrimination laws banning the restriction of girls from subjects deemed âmale orientatedâ.
Changes in the nature of work and employment: The growth of the service sector has changed leading to the creation of more occupations which require less physical labour and more mental labour. This allowed for greater female employment.