States, Principalities, and Population Movements in Ethiopia: 13th to Mid-16th Century

The "Solomonic" Dynasty and the Christian Kingdom (${13^{th}}$ - ${16^{th}}$ Centuries)

• Restoration of the Dynasty:     * The restorer of the dynasty was Yekuno-Amlak, a local ruler in Amhara.     * In ${1270}$, Yekuno-Amlak founded the dynasty, claiming to be a direct descendant of the Aksumite kings.     * The name "Solomonic" is based on the legendary claim of descent from King Solomon of Israel and the Queen of Sheba. This claim was used to justify their legitimacy and portray the preceding Zagwe rulers as illegitimate.     * The claim was historically elaborated in the ${14^{th}}$-century document called the Kibre Negest ("Glory of Kings"), which asserts that the Ethiopian ruling class descended from the line of Menilek I, the son of Solomon and Sheba.     * Monarchs from Yikuno Amlak to Emperor Haile Silassie I claimed this descent.

• Territorial Expansion and Constraints:     * In ${1270}$, the kingdom was limited to Southern Eritrea, Tigray, Lasta, and northern Shewa.     * Expansion began under Yekuno-Amlak and accelerated under Amde-Tsion (r. ${1314}$-${1344}$), who initiated a policy of rapid and wide expansion.     * Territorial Limits Reached:         * North: Ancient highland provinces of Aksum and Zagwe.         * Northwest: Gondar and eastern Gojjam.         * Southwest: Bizamo and Damot.         * South: Gurage lands and the Omotic populations of Wolaita and Gamo.         * East/Southeast: Ifat, Fatagar, Dawaro, Hadiya, and Bali.     * Motives for Expansion: Primarily economic and political, specifically seeking to control trade routes (the Zeila route) and seize territory.

• Political Succession and the Royal Prison:     * Following Yikuno-Amlak's death in ${1285}$, constant power struggles occurred among his heirs.     * In ${1300}$, during the reign of Widim-Ra'ad (r. ${1299}$-${1314}$), the issue was addressed by establishing a 'royal prison' at Amba-Gishen (present-day southern Wollo).     * All male members of the royal family were imprisoned there, guarded by loyal soldiers, and only released when the reigning monarch died to fetch the designated heir.     * This practice lasted until Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi destroyed the site in ${1540}$.

• The System of Mobile Capitals:     * From ${1270}$ until the establishment of Gondar in ${1636}$, the kingdom had no permanent capital.     * Instead, monarchs used mobile courts or camps. Initially centered around Lake Haiq (South Wollo), they shifted to Menz, Tegulet, and Bulga (northern Shewa), and then to eastern Shewa near Mount Yerer and Mount Zequalla.     * Reasons for Mobility:         * Need for continuous food supplies and firewood for huge numbers of soldiers, officials, and servants.         * Military strategy to maintain control over diverse territories.     * Environmental Impact: These cities were often unsanitary, characterized by air pollution from firewood and water pollution from animal slaughter. Constant demand for resources led to systemic deforestation, forcing the abandonment of sites.

• Administrative and Land Systems:     * Gult System: A feudal administrative system where officials (called bale-gult) were granted the right to collect tribute from the peasantry. This was a substitute for a salary and was not hereditary. In exchange, the bale-gult maintained law and order and recruited local armies.     * Rist Right: A communal, hereditary birthright to land ownership for the peasantry. Peasants with rist rights were obliged to pay tribute (or gibber) to the state.

The Muslim Principalities

• Emergence and Trade:     * Muslim sultanates formed along long-distance trade routes, primarily the Zeila route.     * Key states included: Ifat, Fatigar, Dawaro, Dara, Bali, Hadya, Arbabini, Sharka, and Adal.

• The Sultanate of Ifat:     * Founded by Umar Walasma (the Walasma Dynasty) in the mid-${13^{th}}$ century south of Shewa.     * In ${1285}$, it destroyed the Makhzumite dynasty, becoming the dominant Muslim power.     * Conflict with the Christian state arose over control of the profitable Zeila trade. In ${1332}$, Amde Seyon defeated Ifat.

• Regional Locations:     * Fatagar: South of Bulga, around Shenkora.     * Dawaro: Between the middle Awash River and upper Wabe-Shebele.     * Bali: South of the Wabe-Shebele.     * Hadiya: West of Dawaro and Bali; mentioned first during Amde Seyon's reign.     * Sharka: Located in present-day Arsi.

• The Sultanate of Adal:     * A branch of the Walasma family moved southeast to avoid Christian encroachment and established Adal in ${1367}$ near Harar.     * The first center was Dakar (southeast of Harar). The capital moved to Harar in ${1520}$, and later to Awsa in ${1576}$ or ${1577}$ due to Oromo movements and the defeat of Imam Ahmed.

Relationship Between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal (${1520s}$-${1559}$)

• Primary Conflict: Monopoly over long-distance trade routes and territorial expansion. The conflict reached its peak between ${1529}$ and ${1543}$.

• Rise of Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi:     * Known as "the left-handed," born at Hubet (between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga).     * He unified pastoral communities including Afar, Argoba, Somali, and Harari.

• Major Battles:     * Battle of Shimbra Kure (${1529}$): Muslim forces defeated the Christian army led by Lebne-Dengel near Mojjo.     * By ${1535}$, Imam Ahmed controlled a territory stretching from Zeila to Massawa.     * Bati Del Wanbara: The Imam's wife and daughter of commander Mahfuz, she accompanied her husband on military expeditions.

• International Intervention:     * Ottoman Turkey: Provided musketeers and support to Imam Ahmed in ${1540}$.     * Portugal: Provided ${400}$ soldiers and equipment to the Christians in ${1541}$ following a request from Lebne-Dengel.     * Battle of Ofla (${1542}$): Christian forces defeated; Portuguese leader Christopher da Gama killed.     * Battle of Woyna-Dega (${1543}$): On February ${25}$, ${1543}$, the forces of Emperor Gelawdewos and the Portuguese killed Imam Ahmed and defeated the Adal army.

• Conclusion of the War:     * Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid took leadership of Adal and killed Emperor Gelawdewos in ${1559}$ at the Awash valley.     * The prolonged wars exhausted both states, leaving them vulnerable to the Oromo population movement.

Political and Socio-Economic Conditions of Southern and Central States

• Major States:     * Damot: One of the earliest states; King Motalami was converted to Christianity by Abune Tekle Haymanot in the late ${13^{th}}$ century. It was annexed by Amde Seyon in ${1316}$.     * Enareya: Located north of the Gojeb River; became a tributary to the Christian kingdom.     * Kafa: Independent kingdom mentioned from the late ${14^{th}}$ century.     * Wolaita: Ruled by the Wolaita-Malla dynasty; paid tribute to King Yeshaq (r. ${1413}$-${1430}$).     * Agaw Kingdom of Gojjam: Located south of Lake Tana. Incorporating it involved conflict between Christian forces and the Agaw ruler Zhan Chuhay. Abba ZeYohannes attempted to evangelize the region, leading to his detention at Amadamit Mountain before being freed by Amde Tsiyon.

• Economy: Based on trade (natural products like ivory and civet) and agriculture. There was a high demand for enslaved people in Arabia, Persia, and India.

Population Movements: Argobba, Afar, Somali, and the Oromo

• Argobba: Inhabited trade route regions like Shewa and Ifat; dispersed due to systemic warfare.

• Afar: Moved east toward the Middle Awash due to drought and conflict pressures.

• Somali: Their movement provided military strength to Imam Ahmed, but many returned to their home base after his ${1543}$ defeat.

• The Oromo Population Movement:     * Homeland: Madda Walabu (Bale-Sidama border).     * Major Groups: Borana (moved northwest) and Barentu (moved northeast).     * Borana Clans: Mecha, Tulama, southern Borana, Guji.     * Barentu Clans: Karayu, Marawa, Ittu, Humbana, Akachu, Wollo, Arsi.     * Timeline (${1522}$-${1618}$): Involved ${12}$ Butta wars, including the Melba Gadaa (${1522}$-${1530}$) and Mul’ata (${1586}$-${1594}$).     * Success Factors: Military organization of the Gadaa system, use of horses, adaptation mechanisms, and the exhaustion of the Christian and Adal states.     * Consequences: Destruction of old states (Damot, Bizamo, Ennarya); assimilation of Gafat and Damot peoples; shifting of the Christian political center to the Lake Tana region; Sultanate of Adal restricted to the walled town of Harar (protected by the Jegol Gimb wall).

The Oromo Gadaa System

• Core Principles: Egalitarianism, periodic succession (every ${8}$ years), power-sharing, and representation of all lineages.

• Age Grades (${8}$-year intervals):     * Dabale (${0}$-${8}$ years): Socialization.     * Game (${9}$-${16}$ years): Socialization.     * Folle (${17}$-${24}$ years): Military training.     * Qondala (${25}$-${32}$ years): Military service.     * Raba-Dori (${33}$-${40}$ years): Candidates for power.     * Gadaa (${41}$-${48}$ years): Leaders/Government.     * Yuba (${49}$-${80}$ years): Advisors and ritual leaders.

• Governance Roles:     * Abba-Gadaa / Abba Bokku: Head of government/spokesman.     * Abba Chaffe: Head of the assembly.     * Abba-Dula: War leader.     * Abba Sera: Father of law.     * Abba Alanga: Judge.     * Abba Sa'a: Father of treasury.

• Institutions:     * Chaffe: The supreme assembly, often held under a sycamore tree (Odaa).     * Qallu (Abba Muda): Responsible for power transfer legitimacy.     * Sinqe: Institution allowing women to maintain rights and form solidarity complexes (e.g., kalale and cifire roles).

Oromo Adoption Systems

• Guddifacha: Individual adoption of a child into a family, granting them rights equal to biological children.

• Moggasa: Large-scale adoption or "Oromsu" of individuals or groups into a clan through an oath of allegiance overseen by the Abba Gadaa.