Introduction to International Relations Lecture 2 -From Westphalia to Empire
In Week One – Lecture Two: From Westphalia to Modern International Relations
Overview
Focus on power politics, capitalism, and empire influences on international relations.
Outline for Today
From Westphalia to the continent of Europe
Year 1648: The Peace of Westphalia is considered the foundational moment for establishing the principles of sovereignty in international relations, influencing state interactions profoundly. Sovereignty refers to absolute authority of a state over its territory and independence in its external affairs.
The implications were enormous for contemporary statecraft, allowing states to act as independent entities in a system characterized by anarchy, where no overarching authority governs international relations.
18th Century: Power Balancing and Its Demise
The concept of balancing power among states emerged as a vital strategy for maintaining stability in European politics. Powerful states would work to prevent any one state from becoming too dominant, leading to alliances and rivalries that characterized this period.
The collapse of this balance of power occurred primarily due to revolutionary movements, which reshaped national interests and diplomatic relationships.
19th Century: Institution Building
Development of international institutions, including courts and organizations aimed at conflict resolution and cooperation, characterized this era and marked a transition from mere power politics to more structured and legalistic international relations.
Concepts of legitimacy began to manifest through diplomatic norms and practices, ensuring a degree of order amidst the tumult of revolutions and wars.
Limits to Theoretical Generalization: Different Orders, Different Principles
The narrative of international relations often oversimplifies the varying political orders present in different regions and times. A singular framework may miss the complexity and unique principles of different states and historical trajectories.
Buzan and Lawson (2015) challenge the conventional narratives, encouraging a more nuanced understanding that recognizes the pluralism inherent in international relations.
Shifting the Debate: The 19th Century as a ‘Global Transformation’
The 19th century witnessed transformations that were not solely limited to Europe, but rather reflected global interactions. Industrialization, the rise of new political ideologies, and increased connectivity transformed state dynamics worldwide.
Transition to Capitalism: Long Transition and Changing Dynamics of Material Reproduction
The emergence of capitalism represents a significant global shift, radically altering material production, societal relations, and international interactions.
By 1800, the ‘Great Divergence’ began to unfold, marking a period where Europe began to outpace other regions, particularly China, in wealth and technological advancements, redefining global politics in profound ways.
Empire and the Atlantic World
European empires significantly impacted global interactions through colonization, resource exploitation, and the establishment of trade routes that connected disparate parts of the world.
This not only involved economic domination but also cultural and political transformations that reshaped the societies involved.
Recap: Westphalia and Sovereignty
Inside State Authority: Enforces laws and maintains order within a state, representing the exclusive political authority over its citizens.
Outside: An anarchic state of international relations defined by competition, with states interacting based on self-interest.
Sovereignty Diffusion: Westphalian principles spread beyond Europe, affecting international norms and state behaviors globally, yet there’s contention about viewing 1648 as the exclusive origins of modern international relations, given the existence of other state systems elsewhere.
Critical Issues
Absence of Capitalism in 1648: Critiques suggest that without capitalism or a global society, the traditional interpretations of the origins of modern international relations can be misleading.
Eurocentric Narratives: Many historical interpretations overlook varied agency and complexity outside the dominant European narratives, enriching discussions with indigenous and non-European perspectives.
After Westphalia
Consequences of the Thirty Years War: Led to the development of conflict management strategies and improved diplomatic relations among states.
18th Century Developments
Balance of Power: A strategy used by states to maintain stability and prevent dominance, continuing to influence modern diplomatic practice.
Institutional Solutions: Establishment of embassies, diplomatic protocols, laws, and a trend toward limited warfare indicated the maturing nature of international relations during this era.
Peer Pressure: Highlighted the informal mechanisms by which states exert influence and regulate behavior in the absence of a global sovereign.
The Age of Revolutions
Key Figures:
Toussaint l’Ouverture: Crucial leader of the Haitian Revolution, symbolizing the struggle for freedom and anti-colonial resistance.
George Washington: Key to the American Revolution, shaping democratic ideals that influenced future liberal movements worldwide.
‘Marianne’: Emblematic of the French Revolution, embodying values of liberty, equality, and fraternity, stirring revolutionary sentiments around the globe.
Napoleonic Wars and the Concert of Europe
The upheaval caused by the French Revolution prompted European interventions aimed at restoring the balance of power. Responses included forming coalitions among major states to contain France and ensure regional stability.
Coalition Members: Included powers like Britain, Prussia, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, which cooperated in shaping Europe post-Napoleon. The establishment of the Concert of Europe after 1815 aimed at maintaining equilibrium amidst nationalistic and imperial ambitions.
The East Asian International System
Pre-1840s System: Characterized by a tribute system centered around China, where neighboring states acknowledged Chinese supremacy, differing from the anarchic European systems.
Decline of Order: As European expansionism and internal conflicts grew, this pre-established order was destabilized, leading to transformative geopolitical shifts.
Transition to Capitalism
Significance:
One of history’s pivotal events, significantly altering global interactions through new economic practices and state formation.
Pre-Capitalist Production: Economic practices faced constraints, limiting growth and development.
Agricultural Shift: Transition to commercial farming transformed economic landscapes, involving land ownership dynamics that facilitated state-enforced capitalist models.
Impact of Transition on Global Politics
Technological Acceleration: Innovations catalyzed rapid interaction, much like the networks seen today.
Marx & Engels Quote: "All that is solid melts into air," aptly encapsulates the rapid transformations characterizing the era.
Capitalism and State Power
Wealth Disparity: States embracing capitalist practices gained crucial advantages over non-capitalist rivals, enhancing their global standing.
Forms of State Change: Economic policies evolved separately from political interests, enabling states to adopt practices that solidified power.
Geopolitical Power: Britain's early capitalist transition enabled it to establish global dominance, prompting competition among other nations for industrial advancement.
The Great Divergence
Pomeranz's Concept (2000): Discusses Europe’s ascension past other regions, particularly China, in wealth and technological prowess by 1800, laying the groundwork for contemporary disparities in international relations.
Divergence Effects: Created a critical divide between ‘the West’ and ‘the Rest,’ sharply influencing international relations and economic exchanges.
Exploration and Colonization (c. 1700)
European Empires: Key players included Spain, Portugal, France, the Netherlands, and Britain, whose ambitions reshaped global interactions extensively.
Global Interaction: Restructured colonies and trade routes fostered new cultural and political exchanges, often resulting in conflict.
The Atlantic World System
Emergence:
A burgeoning global economy focused on the Atlantic from the late 18th to 19th centuries promoted trade and colonial expansion.
Social Dynamics:
Varied benefits arose for coastal vs. interior kingdoms in a complex interplay with global trade networks, highlighting uneven wealth distribution.
Slavery's Role:
Integral to the wealth creation for Western capitalism, slavery shaped economic growth while inciting profound social and moral crises.
Complex Dynamics of the Atlantic World System
Active Agents: Societies engaged in imperial and capitalist processes are portrayed as active participants, countering the passive victim narratives seen historically.
Long 19th Century and IR Theory
Focus shifts to the recognition of global transformations that redefine international relations, emphasizing interconnectedness and impact on diplomacy.
New International Actors: Emergence of organizations tackling issues like slavery points to evolving motivations that transcend conventional power politics.
Continued Relevance: Core motivations—power, wealth, ideology—remain significant, even as contexts change.
Next Lecture Title: The Rise and Fall of Empires
(Note recorded due to Labor Day; available on Canvas).