Comprehensive U.S. Government and Political System Key Terms

Democracy → Government by the people; requires free/fair elections, rule of law, political equality, and protection of rights.
Theocracy → Government ruled by religious leaders.
Oligarchy → Rule by a small group of powerful elites.
Monarchy → Rule by a single monarch, such as a king or queen.
Three Functions of Government → Maintain order, provide public services, promote equality and rights.
Demographics → Statistical characteristics of a population (age, race, income, etc.).
Ethnocentrism → Belief that one’s own culture is superior to others.
Political Ideologies → Set of beliefs about government; examples include liberalism, conservatism, libertarianism, populism.

Constitution → Supreme law of the land; establishes government structure and limits power.
Federalism → Division of power between national and state governments.
Supremacy Clause → Article VI; federal law is supreme over state law.
Legislative Branch → Makes laws (Congress).
Executive Branch → Enforces laws (President).
Judicial Branch → Interprets laws (Courts).
Enumerated Powers → Specifically granted to Congress (e.g., coin money).
Concurrent Powers → Shared by federal and state governments (e.g., taxation).
Reserved Powers → Held by states (10th Amendment).
Inherent Powers → Powers of a sovereign nation (e.g., foreign affairs).
Bill of Rights → First 10 amendments protecting individual liberties.
Bicameralism → Two-house legislature (House and Senate).

Roles of the President → Chief Executive, Commander in Chief, Chief Diplomat, Head of State, Chief Legislator, Party Leader.
Presidential Powers → Veto, appointment, treaty negotiation, pardon, commander in chief.
Executive Order → Directive by President with the force of law.
Executive Privilege → Right to withhold information from other branches.
Cabinet → Heads of executive departments, appointed by President, confirmed by Senate.
President Accountable To → Congress, Supreme Court, Constitution, Voters, Media/Public.

Judicial Review → Power of courts to declare laws unconstitutional (Marbury v. Madison).
Class Action Suit → Lawsuit filed by a group of people with similar claims.
Civil Case → Dispute between individuals or organizations.
Criminal Case → Government prosecutes for violation of law.
Common Law → Judge-made law based on precedents.
Constitutional Law → Derived from the Constitution.
Statutory Law → Passed by legislatures.
Administrative Law → Created by government agencies (e.g., EPA).
Judicial Decisions → Interpretations by judges in specific cases.
Stare Decisis → “Let the decision stand”; follow precedent.
Precedent → Previous ruling that guides future decisions.
Jurisdiction → Court’s authority to hear a case.
General Jurisdiction → Broad range of cases.
Limited Jurisdiction → Specific cases only (e.g., small claims).
Appellate Jurisdiction → Reviews lower court decisions.
Department of Justice → Enforces federal laws; part of the executive branch.
Judiciary Accountable To → Constitution, higher courts, Congress, President, public indirectly.

Bureaucracy → Large organization implementing government policies.
Departments → Major administrative units headed by Secretaries who report to the President.
Administrative Agency → Part of departments; implement and enforce rules.
Independent Regulatory Commission → Independent body regulating sectors (e.g., FCC).
Government Corporation → Provides services for a fee (e.g., USPS).
Political Appointees → Chosen by President, short-term positions.
Bureaucrats → Career employees hired by merit.
Iron Triangle → Relationship among Congress, Bureaucrats, and Interest Groups.
Privatization/Outsourcing → Transferring public services to private firms.
Hatch Act → Limits political activities of federal employees.
Bureaucratic Accountability → To President, Congress, Courts, and the Public.

Interest Group → Organization seeking to influence public policy.
Lobbying → Direct contact to influence government officials.
Free Rider Problem → People benefit without contributing; solved by selective incentives.
PAC (Political Action Committee) → Gives limited money directly to candidates.
Super PAC → Spends unlimited money independently from campaigns.

Congress Structure → Bicameral: House (435 members, 2-year terms) and Senate (100 members, 6-year terms).
Congress Powers → Make laws, declare war, regulate commerce, control spending.
Lawmaking Process → Bill → Committee → Floor → Other Chamber → President.
Committees → Smaller groups that handle detailed legislative work.
Speaker of the House → Leader of the House majority party.
Senate Majority Leader → Most powerful figure in the Senate.
Incumbency Advantage → Easier reelection due to name recognition, fundraising, and experience.