Tradition and Change in East Asia

Overview of East Asia and European Relations

• China and Japan's Isolation

  • Neither country was directly involved in the Atlantic world but were greatly desired by Europeans.

  • Significant European interest, especially from the Spanish, who sent half their silver to Manila for Asian trade.

• Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

  • Restored Chinese governance following the Mongol rule (Yuan dynasty).

  • Revitalized traditional practices, reinforced legitimacy through projects like the Forbidden City.

  • Expanded the Great Wall to protect against incursions.

• Manchu/Qing Dynasty Policies

  • Continued Ming policies, integrated Manchus into governance.

  • Demanded visible symbols of their rule, such as the queue hairstyle requirement for Chinese men.

• Trade and Cultural Exchange

  • Chinese merchants flourished along Afro-Eurasian trade routes, benefited from new crops due to the Columbian exchange, resulting in population growth and cultural prosperity.

  • Religions like Buddhism and neo-Confucianism thrived during this period.

• Tokugawa Japan

  • The Tokugawa shogunate centralized power after winning civil wars.

  • Restricted the daimyo's power, leading to stable governance.

  • Limitations were placed on European presence in Japan and severe restrictions were enacted against Western religions, emphasizing the perceived inferiority of foreign cultures.

China

Matteo Ricci and Chiming Clocks

• Matteo Ricci's Mission

  • Introduced European mechanical clocks to China, aiming to impress the emperor Wanli.

  • Traveled to the Port of Macau (Beijing)

  • Developed a diplomatic relationship with Chinese officials by showcasing technological advancements.

• Cultural Exchange

  • Mechanical devices created curiosity and engagement with local authorities but did not result in widespread conversion to Christianity.

    • Ricci's efforts highlighted the complex interaction between European technology and Chinese traditional authority.

• Christianity in East Asia

  • Christian missionaries largely failed to gain traction in China despite technological offerings.

  • Ricci began to blend Confucian/Chinese ideals into Christianity and the Pope did not like that; therefore, the mission failed.

  • Matteo Ricci's strategy reflected a blend of diplomacy and cultural engagement, focusing primarily on technological gifts.

• Government Structure

  • Ming emperors initially expanded their influence abroad through maritime expeditions, but this was curtailed by cost and focus on internal stability.

The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

• Ming Dynasty Consolidation//management of Mongol invasions to creating a central state bolstered by Confucian values.

  • revived civil service staffed by Confucian scholars

  • worked to eradicate Mongol influence

  • encouraged individuals to abandon their Mongol names and clothing

• Ming emperor placed great trust in eunuchs

  • Led to government corruption

• Main focus was to maintain stability in a large agrarian society

• Emperor Yongle: launches naval expeditions, moved capital to Beijing, created the Forbidden City

• The Great Wall served as a symbol of national unity and defense.

• Ming Decline

  • Struggled against corruption, piracy, and domestic unrest, leading to loss of control over the territories.

  • Corruption and inefficiency spread throughout the government

  • The Ming lost military control of the Northern nomadic groups

  • 1630s: Peasants organized revolts around Chinas

  • Manchu forces invaded in 1644, leading to the collapse of the Ming dynasty.

The Qing “pure” Dynasty (1644-1911)

• Manchu Ascendancy

  • Unified disparate Manchu tribes under Nurhaci and developed military strength.

    • The Manchus manipulated Ming loyalist into helping them, then they were expelled.

  • Qing dynasty established a legacy of conquest and cultural integration across a vast empire.

• Cultural Legitimacy

  • Manchus preserved their own ethnic and cultural identity

    • they did not allow intermarriage between Manchus and Chinese

    • Chinese were not allowed to learn Manchurian language

  • Even as outsiders, the Manchus embraced Chinese culture and sought to maintain stability through Confucian administrative practices.

• Geopolitical Landscape

  • The Qing dynasty expanded its territories toward Mongolia, Vietnam, Burma, Nepal, Tibet, and Central Asia for strategic control.

• Continuities:

  • kept the same government apparatus as the Ming

  • tightly centralized state, staffed by Confucian scholars

  • “Son of Heaven”

    • the emperors clothes and name are forbidden for anyone to use

  • Kowtow: 3:9

  Key Emperors

  • Emperors like Kangxi and Qianlong fostered agricultural projects, education, and continued territorial expansion during their reigns.

  • Kangxi reigned for 61 years: longest ruling emperor in Chinese history

  • Qianlong reign = height of the Qing dynasty

    • cancelled tax collections

    • delegated work to eunuchs

Governance and Society

• Scholar-Bureaucrats

  • Civil service exams, based on Confucian texts, dominated the pathways to power.

  • Exams encouraged education, but access to higher positions often favored wealthier families.

  • A degree did not ensure government job; you would have to move up the ranking of imperial jobs

• Neo-Confucian tradition reigned imperial ideology.

• Cultural Cohesion

  • Confucianism structured societal values, enhancing stability while limiting rapid economic change.

Social Structure, Economic Improvements, and Women’s Roles

• The Confucian Hierarchy

  • Rigid class structure with scholars at the top and merchants at the bottom due to moral scrutiny.

  • Merchants often blurred the lines by gaining wealth through their son’s education or connections with the elite.

    • However, the Chinese government did not promote economic development through trade

    • Social structures began to adapt to urban growth, with merchants rising in influence and status, challenging traditional Confucian roles.

  • Lower Classes: “mean” people included; slaves, indentured servants, entertainers, prostitutes, and other marginal groups

• Agricultural Advances

  • Agricultural production increased dramatically

  • Population grew

  • Introduction of American crops: sweet potato, maize, peanuts

• Impact on Women

  • Confucian values reaffirmed patriarchal roles; foot binding was a painful cultural practice symbolic of status.

Trade Dynamics and Influences

• Mercantilism in China

  • Wealth generated from trade largely benefited merchants and the government; silver influx facilitated trade.

• Technological Stagnation

  • The Ming and Qing period marked a slowdown of technological innovations compared to earlier dynasties.

• Trade and Global Markets

  • Influx of Japanese and American silver stimulated trade and financed commercial expansion.

  • Traded in Manila porcelain and silk for American silver

  • Traded in Batavia (Dutch) for silver and Indonesian spices

• Qing Trade Policy

  • Trade with Britain was restricted to Guangzhou, leading to conflicts and misunderstandings about trade rights.

• Migrant Issues

  • The Qing tried to end maritime activity

  • Kangxi ordered evacuation of the southern coastal regions

  • Only allowed Portuguese trade through the port of Macau, and the British through Guangzhou

Dutch and European Engagement

• Dutch Learning

  • Dutch merchants became key sources of information about European knowledge after Christian missionary efforts were largely subdued.

Christianity's Struggles

• Missionary Efforts

  • Jesuit missions in Japan experienced initial success but faced backlash from local authorities and cultural obstacles.

• Popular culture emerged as a significant aspect of life contrary to Confucian theories, providing a space for artistic expression.

• Christianity never stuck in Japan due to the Pope’s disagreement on the way Christianity was being incorporated in China

Japan

The Last Shogunate: The Tokugawa (c.1600-1868)

• Tokugawa Shoguns

  • the Tokugawa leyasu seizes power from warring Daimyos at the Battle of Sakhigahara (1800)

  • Sengoku ends - “country at war”

    • Japan grows economically and culturally at the expense of most trade with the outside world.

  • Era known as: the Edo period

    • Edo was Tokyo’s old name

  • 1500-1600s: sengoku begins again

Native Learning Movements

• This period saw a marked change as native learning sought to elevate Japanese cultural identity above foreign influences.

• Importance of Confucianism and Chinese traditions in Japan

• “Native learning” movement

  • xenophobia; pro Japan

  • sakoku - the country in isolation

Page 18: Domestic Economic Growth

• Social Changes

  • Economic growth encouraged a shift in social dynamics, with rising merchant classes gaining wealth and influence.

Page 19: Cultural Developments

• The Floating World

  • Urban culture thrived with emerging types such as kabuki and bunraku, indicative of a flourishing leisure sector.

Page 21: Evolution of Thinking

• Cultural Complications

  • Conflicts between traditional teachings and novel ideas emerged, but the influence of Confucianism remained strong.

Page 22: Conclusion of Christian Missions

• Failure of Missions: The campaign against Christianity essentially left it underground, with Japanese authorities more focused on maintaining cultural integrity.

Page 23: Fabian Fucan's Perspective

• Rejection of Christianity: Critique and reflection on the conflict between traditional beliefs and foreign doctrines showcase the tensions of this era.

Page 24: Final Thoughts on Religious Dynamics

• Anti-Christian Campaigns: Rigid enforcement against Christianity reflects the broader themes of cultural preservation and social upheaval.

Page 25: Summary and Reflection

• Economic and Social Interactions: The interconnectedness of trade, culture, and society underpins the transformation of both China and Japan during this era.

Eyewitness Accounts

• Matteo Ricci's Mission:

  • Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit missionary, made significant efforts to bridge cultural gaps between Europe and China during the late Ming Dynasty. Driven by both curiosity and a desire to forge connections, he introduced European mechanical clocks to China to impress the emperor Wanli. His interactions with Chinese officials were marked by discussions of religion, science, and governance, creating an environment ripe for cultural exchange. Despite the technological marvels he presented, widespread conversion to Christianity remained elusive, illuminating the complexity of his mission.

• Tokugawa Japan:

  • Eyewitness accounts from the Tokugawa shogunate era depict a society in flux. The rigid social structure enforced by Confucian ideals often created tensions; for example, while merchants could accumulate wealth, they were socially viewed as inferior. The experiences of merchants during this time reveal a struggle for recognition and influence in a world dominated by samurai and scholars. The introduction of Western ideas via early Jesuit missions initially led to intrigue but soon transformed into suspicion and eventual expulsion as the Tokugawa regime sought to assert control over foreign influences and preserve Japan's cultural integrity. However, artistic expressions flourished, notably in the form of kabuki and bunraku, showcasing the complexity of societal interactions and the resilience of popular culture amidst growing restrictions

The Ming and Qing Dynasties: Detailed Overview

Continuities

1. Governance Structure: Both the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1912) dynasties maintained a centralized bureaucratic system rooted in Confucian ideology. Civil service exams continued to be a primary means of selecting government officials, ensuring that scholars dominated the administrative ranks.

2. Cultural Practices: Confucian traditions remained strong throughout both dynasties, with respect for hierarchy and filial piety being integral societal values. This cultural coherence fostered stability and continuity in Chinese society over the centuries.

3. Defense Mechanisms: The Great Wall of China amplified its strategic importance in both dynasties, illustrating a persistent defense against external threats, particularly from nomadic tribes in the north.

Declines

1. Ming Decline: The Ming dynasty faced severe internal pressures, including corruption within the government, peasant uprisings, and natural disasters leading to reduced agricultural output. The final blow came in 1644 when Manchu forces invaded, exploiting Ming weaknesses and internal strife.

2. Qing Decline: The Qing dynasty's decline was precipitated by a combination of factors including internal unrest, such as the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864), which severely weakened the dynasty. Additionally, external pressures from Western imperialism, notably through the Opium Wars, led to unequal treaties that undermined Chinese sovereignty.

Foreign Relations

• Ming Foreign Relations: The Ming dynasty initially engaged in robust maritime trade and expeditions under Admiral Zheng He, which extended into Southeast Asia and even to the East African coast. However, later isolationist policies limited foreign interaction and trade.

• Qing Foreign Relations: The Qing dynasty adopted a more controlled approach to foreign relations, particularly with Europe. The establishment of the Canton system restricted trade to the port of Guangzhou, and the restrictive trade policies led to tensions with Western powers, culminating in conflicts such as the Opium Wars and the Boxer Rebellion.

Economy

1. Ming Economy: The Ming dynasty saw a flourishing economy bolstered by agricultural advancements due to the introduction of new crops from the Americas (e.g., maize and sweet potatoes). Trade flourished, and the influx of silver from the Spanish colonies facilitated commerce.

2. Qing Economy: The Qing continued to promote agricultural development leading to population growth, which intensified trade activities across Asia. However, the latter part of the Qing era showcased severe economic strain due to ineffective leadership, corruption, and the pressures of Western encroachment, resulting in a dependence on foreign trade.

Social Change

• Ming Transition: Society during the Ming dynasty increasingly showcased urbanization as trade and commerce thrived, leading to the rise of a merchant class that challenged traditional social hierarchies constrained by Confucian ideals.

• Qing Reform: During the Qing dynasty, social stratification persisted as Confucian ideals remained entrenched; however, the rise of nationalism, particularly in the face of foreign domination, began to slowly shift societal considerations. This period saw the emergence of modern ideas as intellectuals critiqued traditional structures and sought reform.

Rulers

• Ming Rulers: Prominent emperors include Hongwu, who founded the dynasty and emphasized rural agricultural policies and Zhu Di (Yongle), known for the expansion of the empire and leading maritime voyages.

• Qing Rulers: Key emperors included Kangxi, who presided over a vast territorial expansion and the consolidation of imperial power, and Qianlong, noted for cultural patronage and expansion as well, although his later years saw the beginning of decline due to mismanagement.

Technology

1. Ming Technology: The period observed remarkable advancements in technology, particularly in the realms of ceramics, textiles, and agricultural tools. The introduction of foreign technologies, especially from Europe, led to improvements but was somewhat limited in scope.

2. Qing Technology: Although initially progressive, by the late Qing dynasty, China fell behind in technological innovation. This fostered dependency on foreign goods and led to social and economic challenges in responding to the modernizing world around them.