Families and Households

Examination Overview for AQA A-Level Sociology Paper 2

Families and Households is an optional topic appearing on Paper $2$ of the AQA A-Level Sociology examination. For students sitting this exam, the topic consists of three questions: two $10$-mark questions and one $20$-mark question. This section totals $40$ marks, representing exactly half of the marks available for Paper $2$. The remaining half of the paper is composed of another optional topic, such as Media or Beliefs in Society. The AQA specification outlines specific areas students must master to succeed, including sociological perspectives, the division of labour, marriage and divorce, family diversity, social policy, childhood, demographics, and migration.

Functionalist Perspectives on the Family

Functionalism views the family as a vital organ in the "organic analogy" of society, where each institution performs specific functions to maintain social order. Murdock defined the family as a social group characterised by common residence, economic cooperation, and reproduction. He stipulated that it must include adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, whether biological or adopted. Having studied $250$ societies, Murdock claimed that the nuclear family—a two-generational unit consisting of a man, a woman, and their children—was universal. He identified four essential functions of the nuclear family using the acronym SEER: stable satisfaction of the sex drive, educational transmission of norms and values, economic meeting of family needs, and reproduction of the next generation.

Critiques of Murdock’s ideas emphasise that his SEER functions can be met outside the traditional family structure. Reproduction is now facilitated through the NHS and IVF; economic needs are often supported by the welfare state through child benefits; and education is supplemented by early-years interventions like Sure Start centres. Furthermore, critics point to the "dark side" of the family, which includes domestic abuse, sexual assault, and coercive control. Statistics indicate that approximately one-quarter of women face domestic abuse, and on average, a woman is murdered every $2.5$ days by a current or former partner in the UK. Murdock is also criticized for ignoring family diversity and assuming the nuclear structure is a "one-size-fits-all" model.

Parsons developed the "Functional Fit" theory, suggesting that family structures adapt to meet the needs of society at specific developmental stages. During the Agricultural Revolution, the extended multi-generational family was dominant to provide internal support and labour. However, the Industrial Revolution necessitated a shift toward the nuclear family because it allowed for greater geographical mobility as people moved to cities for factory work. Parsons identified two core functions of the modern family: primary socialization and the stabilization of adult personalities. The latter is exemplified by the "warm bath theory," the idea that the family acts as a psychological cushion, allowing the male breadwinner to shed the stresses of the workplace and refresh himself for the next day. Parsons argued roles are biologically determined, with the husband taking the instrumental role (breadwinning, discipline, DIY) and the wife taking the expressive role (nurturing, domestic chores).

The New Right and Familial Ideology

The New Right perspective, supported by various politicians and sociologists, advocates for traditional values and the nuclear family as the only foundation for a stable society. They argue that any breakdown of the nuclear family hinders adequate socialisation. Charles Murray identified the emergence of an "underclass" characterized by welfare dependency, while Patricia Morgan famously claimed that "single-parent families breed delinquents." The New Right views single mothers as a source of delinquency and antisocial behaviour due to the lack of a strong male role model. However, sociological evidence often contradicts these claims. Approximately only 1% of single parents in the UK are teenagers, with the average age being 39. Most single mothers are in paid work, and research suggests children are just as happy—if many cases more so—in single-parent homes where they escape the conflict and toxicity of dysfunctional nuclear households.

Familial ideology is reinforced through the media, particularly through what is termed "cereal packet families." Advertisements, such as those for Fairy Liquid or cereal, often depict a traditional nuclear unit socialised into rigid gender roles. An example cited is a banned Fairy Liquid advert from the early $2010s$ that showed a mother in the expressive role while the father sat reading a newspaper. Critiques of the New Right highlight that their views ignore the dark side of the family and are often based on "moral panics" or "folk devils" created by right-wing media to find someone to blame for societal issues. Furthermore, male perspectives like those of Michael Portillo, Michael Howard, and Michael Gove are seen as being blinded by their own privileged status.

Feminist Perspectives on the Family

Feminists argue that the family serves the interests of the patriarchy rather than society as a whole. Children are socialized into gender roles through canalization (directing children toward gender-appropriate toys and activities) and verbal appellation (using gendered language like "boys will be boys"). Feminists contend that women possess less social, economic, and cultural capital than men. Men often participate in "golf club culture," building social networks that lead to career progression, while women are sidelined into part-time work or domesticity. Cultural capital is further limited for marginalized groups, such as working-class or BAM (Black, Asian, and Minority Ethnic) women, who may struggle to navigate the welfare or education systems.

Marxist feminist Fran Ansley famously described women as the "takers of shit," arguing they absorb the frustrations of husbands who are exploited at work, thereby preventing those men from directing their anger toward capitalism. Different branches of feminism offer varied solutions: Liberal feminists focus on progress through legislation like the $1967$ Abortion Act, the $1970$ Equal Pay Act, and the $1975$ Sex Discrimination Act. Marxist feminists blame capitalism for women's oppression, seeing women as a "reserve army of cheap labor." Radical feminists view men as the enemy and may advocate for separatism or political lesbianism. Difference feminists, such as Greer, argue that women’s experiences vary based on class and ethnicity, noting that black women may view the family as a positive refuge against racism.

Marxist and Post-Structuralist Perspectives

Marxists like Althusser view the family as part of the "ideological state apparatus," an institution that maintains capitalism by teaching children to accept hierarchy and inequality. Engels argued that the monogamous nuclear family emerged to ensure the inheritance of private property through the male line via primogeniture. Zaretsky argues the family supports capitalism by providing unpaid domestic labor, reproducing the future workforce, and acting as a unit of consumption. This is facilitated by "pester power," where children persuade parents to buy products. Supermarkets even design layouts to maximize this, placing essentials at the back and treats at child-eye level near the checkouts. Critiques of Marxism mention that the nuclear family is no longer dominant (comprising only $50\%$ of types) and that the theory ignores the personal benefits the family provides to its members.

Post-structuralists like Donzelot and Foucault focus on how the state monitors and controls the family through surveillance. State agents, such as health visitors and attendance officers, observe family behavior to ensure it aligns with state-desired norms. While Donzelot sees this as a form of policing, others argue these professionals are essential for the well-being of children and ensuring social mobility.

The Personal Life Perspective and Postmodernism

Postmodernists reject structural theories, arguing that individuals have "agency" or free will to choose their family types in a "pick-and-mix" society. This leads to the Personal Life Perspective, which looks at meanings members give to relationships beyond blood or marriage. This includes relationships with friends, fictive kin, dead relatives, pets, and gay or lesbian "chosen families." Smart and Neale studied donor-conceived children, finding that social relationships are often more significant than genetic ties. While these views celebrate diversity, they are criticized for being "risk-averse" and ignoring the enduring impact of structural factors like poverty.

The Division of Labour

Bott identified two types of conjugal roles: segregated (separate roles and leisure) and joint (shared tasks and leisure). Wilmott and Young proposed the "March of Progress" view, claiming roles are becoming more equal in the "symmetrical family." This shift was driven by the building of council houses (reducing extended family support), women entering the workforce, the invention of white goods (fridges, cookers), and the 1967 availability of contraception. However, Ann Oakley challenged this, finding that only $15\%$ of husbands had high participation in housework. Statistics from $2007$ by Craig show women still do $50\%$ to $66\%$ more domestic work. Dun found that lesbian couples often have more symmetrical relationships because they are not bound by "gender scripts," suggesting that heterosexual inequality may be a result of patriarchal norms rather than just capitalism.

Marriage, Divorce, and Family Diversity

Marriage rates have declined due to individualization, secularization, and the changing role of women. The legal framework for divorce was expanded by the $1949$ Legal Aid and Advice Act, the $1969$ Divorce Reform Act, and the $1985$ Matrimonial and Family Proceedings Act. Today, approximately $1$ in $2$ marriages end in divorce. Cohabitation has doubled from $1996$ to $2012$, reaching $2.9$ million couples. Chester argues most people live in "neo-conventional" families where both spouses work, but the nuclear ideal remains. The Rapoports identified five types of diversity using the acronym CLOCKS: Cultural, Life course, Organizational, Cohort, and Social class.

Social Policy and the Family

Social policies can directly (marriage laws) or indirectly (compulsory education) affect family life. Extreme examples include China’s one-child policy ($1979$-$2015$) and the Pro-Natalist policies of Nazi Germany. In the UK, the Troubled Families Program ($2012$) targeted $120,000$ families characterized by truancy, crime, and worklessness. New Right thinkers support such policies to instill discipline, whereas Marxists argue they ignore structural poverty, and post-structuralists see them as intrusive surveillance.

The Social Construction of Childhood

Childhood is a social construct that varies across time and culture. Wagg and Pilcher emphasize the "separateness" of modern childhood, quarantined from the adult world. Aries analyzed medieval paintings and concluded that childhood did not exist in the Middle Ages; children were "mini-adults" who worked and faced adult punishments. Postman argues childhood is now "disappearing" due to the breakdown of the "information hierarchy" caused by television and the internet. Conversely, Palmer identifies a "toxic childhood" where technology and junk food damage development. Child-centeredness has increased, with parents spending an average of $£227,000$ per child until age $21$. However, class, gender, and ethnic inequalities remain, with $210,000$ homeless children currently in the UK.

Demographics and Migration

The UK population is projected to reach $70$ million by $2027$. Fertility rates have dropped from $3.5$ in $1900$ to $1.44$ today. The death rate is $9.9$ per $1,000$, though life expectancy has risen to $78$ for males and $82$ for females. The aging population creates a "dependency ratio" issue, though Harper notes "radical longevity" could see $1$ million centenarians by $2100$. Migration accounts for $43\%$ of UK population growth. Cohen identifies three migrant types: Citizens, Denizens (billionaires), and Helots (exploited labour). Hochschild notes the "feminisation of migration," where women from abroad fill the domestic voids left by empowered Western women, often acting as a "reserve army of labour."

Questions & Discussion

The speaker transitions into the conclusion, thanking the audience for their support. They offer a disclaimer that they are a Year $13$ student revising for Paper $2$, not a professional. They mention they intend to create a future video on Paper $3$ (Crime and Deviance) and potentially Media, but encourage viewers to check out their existing video on Sociological Theory. They invite feedback in the comment section and wish everyone luck with their upcoming exams.