Criminology Exam 1
Chapter 1
criminology - the study of making and breaking criminal laws, as well as society’s reaction to breaking those laws
criminology vs criminalistics: criminology focuses on the social aspects and causes of crime, while criminalistics refers to the scientific techniques used to investigate and analyze evidence from crime scenes.
research methods
Comparative research
looks at crime in societies with different cultures and social structures
advantages:
tests similarities of crime in different places
analyze correlation of crime and economic development or urbanization
disadvantages:
data rarely collected simultaneously in other countries
methodological issues with statistics collected by police
political and linguistic barriers
lack of funding
Historical research
examines the same society at different times and looks at the ways that crime has changed with economic and social development
advantages:
enables the analysis of long-term trends and shifts in crime over extended historical periods
provides critical historical context for understanding how modern laws and criminal justice policies evolved
allows examination of major societal transitions, such as economic shifts or wars, on crime rates
disadvantages:
relies on surviving historical records which may be incomplete, inaccurate, or biased
legal definitions, police practices, and reporting methods change over time, making long-term statistical comparison difficult
impossible to directly verify findings or re-interview historical subjects
Biographies
experiences of a single individual are examined in detail
advantages:
hypotheses can be tested on larger samples
disadvantages:
one criminal may not be representative of others
distorted experiences
Cohort studies
collect data at an early age for the members of a cohort and then follow them through adolescence and into adulthood
advantages:
can use surveys and questionnaires instead of relying on official data
disadvantages:
expensive
do not get results for years
regular interviewing may disrupt the individuals normal process of growing up
Surveys
a sample of people representative of some larger population is asked a series of prepared questions
advantages:
efficient and cost-effective method for collecting data from a large population
allows for statistical analysis and measurement of unrecorded crimes (self-report and victimization)
standardized format ensures consistency and comparability across respondents
disadvantages:
subject to self-reporting bias, dishonesty, or faulty memory from respondents
rigid questions may fail to capture complex nuances or detailed context
low response rates can lead to sampling bias and difficulty reaching certain populations
Observation
careful and systematic watching of behavior
advantages:
provides direct observation of actual behavior rather than relying on self-reports
captures real-time social dynamics and contextual nuance in natural settings
eliminates respondent memory errors or intentional misrepresentation
disadvantages:
criminals like to keep offenses secret
time consuming
privacy concerns
Official and unofficial reports
police, court, and correctional system records
advantages:
provides large-scale, readily available data across long periods without high collection costs
allows for the analysis of trends, patterns, and processing across different levels of the justice system
standardized recording procedures allow for broad comparisons across geographic areas and administrative jurisdictions
disadvantages:
fails to capture unrecorded or unreported crimes (the "dark figure of crime")
vulnerable to changes in law enforcement policies, reporting practices, and political motivations
lacks context and underlying personal or social details regarding offenders, victims, and specific crime situations
Experiments
controlled studies in which people are treated in different ways to determine the effects of that treatment on their attitudes and behavior
advantages:
provides high control over variables to establish clear cause-and-effect relationships
allows for replication under identical conditions to verify findings
enables precise measurement of specific responses and treatments
disadvantages:
artificial experimental settings may lack real-world validity (external validity)
significant ethical and legal limitations when studying criminal behavior
difficult to isolate and control complex social factors in field settings
Definition of crime:
Gottfredson and Hirschi - acts of force or fraud undertaken in pursuit of self-interest, providing easy gratification and involving little skill or planning
advantages:
Provides a clear framework for understanding crime through the lens of self-interest.
Highlights the role of individual agency in criminal behavior, allowing for targeted prevention strategies.
Simplifies the complex nature of crime into manageable concepts that can be easily communicated.
disadvantages:
May overlook systemic and structural factors that influence criminal behavior, risking an incomplete analysis.
Can lead to victim-blaming perspectives, where individuals are held solely accountable for their actions without considering social inequalities.
Risks promoting punitive measures rather than rehabilitative strategies, which may not effectively address the root causes of crime.
Schwendingers - violations of the historically determined rights of individuals
advantages:
Encourages a more compassionate understanding of criminal behavior that considers societal influences.
Promotes restorative justice practices that aim to repair harm rather than solely punish offenders.
Drives policy changes that can lead to equitable treatment within the criminal justice system.
disadvantages:
May be viewed as too lenient, potentially undermining the deterrent effect of the justice system.
Resource-intensive, requiring significant investment in training for practitioners and community support systems.
Risks minimizing the seriousness of certain crimes, which can lead to public backlash and a lack of support for restorative initiatives.
Implementation can be challenging in areas with entrenched punitive practices, leading to inconsistent application of restorative principles.
Conklin (legalistic definition) - an act that violates the criminal law and is punishable by the state
advantages:
Provides clear guidelines for law enforcement and judicial processes, enhancing consistency in the application of justice.
Facilitates a uniform understanding of criminal acts among society, deterring potential offenders by establishing clear legal boundaries.
disadvantages:
Often oversimplifies complex social issues by categorizing behavior strictly as criminal or non-criminal, which may overlook underlying factors such as socioeconomic conditions or mental health.
characteristics/criteria
no law = no crime
no punishment = no crime
misdemeanor- up to one year in jail or prison
felony - more than one year in jail or prison
no culpability = no crime
actus reus - no action
Exceptions:
inchoate crimes - attempt or conspiracy, act not needed
mens rea - no criminal intent
Exceptions:
negligence - specific intent not required
strict liability statutes - felony murder, misdemeanor manslaughter statutory rape, specific intent not required
no social harm = no crime
no causal connection = no crime
Legal Defenses
Excuse:
age
insanity
entrapment
mistake of fact
intoxication
Justification:
self defense
necessity
duress (by force or compulsion)
Theories of law
Consensus perspective (Durkheim)
society is characterized by the collective conscience
shared values, beliefs, and norms
conflict between outside groups with competing interests
law demonstrates power and defends CC
Crime - any act that shocks the CC
some is functional
defines moral boundaries
enhances social solidarity
advantages:
Promotes adherence to societal norms and values
Deters criminal behavior through fear of punishment
Allows for social change by highlighting injustices and provoking reform
disadvantages:
Can result in the over-criminalization of certain behaviors, disproportionately affecting marginalized groups
May lead to excessive punitive measures that do not address the root causes of crime
Risk of entrenching existing power structures and resisting necessary social change
Can create a cycle of fear and distrust between communities and law enforcement.
Conflict perspective (Marx)
society is characterized by conflicts between groups with competing interests, beliefs, and values
law reflects power
capitalism shapes all social institutions and causes class conflict
crime - actions that threaten the economy or interests of the capitalist class
laws control workers and protect capitalist interests
advantages:
Establish a stable environment for business operations
Maintain social order and reduce unrest among the working class
Enhance the profitability of capitalist enterprises by legitimizing certain acts and criminalizing others
Provide a framework for the redistribution of resources in favor of the elite classes
Promote economic growth by ensuring that business practices are upheld through legal enforcement.
disadvantages:
Tends to oversimplify complex legal systems by attributing all laws strictly to class interests
Overlooks broad consensus on laws that protect against universal harms like violent crimes
Risk of promoting cynicism toward legal institutions, hindering constructive policy reform
Group Conflict Theory
many sources of conflict
cultural differences
social status
economic interests
groups compete to control the law
crime - any act that a group successfully defines as crime
law defends particular social, economic, and political interests
Left realism
shifts emphasis to the impact the crime has on member in that class
Problems
mala en se - acts that are wrong/evil by nature and universally accepted as harmful
murder, rape, robbery, assualt
mala prohibita - acts that are considered wrong because they are prohibited by law, not universally recognized as evil but illegal because they are forbidden
drugs, gambling, prostitution
Chapter 2
Origins of crime measurement
cartography
first used in 19th century to understand crime
concluded that crime is a regular feature of social activity
must be studied in relation to the larger society
Crime statistics
Official statistics
Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)
uses:
monitoring trends in crime rates over time
investigating geographic variations in crime rates
Summary Reporting system (SRS)
original system
1930s-2021
collected bi-annually
17,000+ agencies
part I offenses:
Murder/Non-negligent Manslaughter
Rape
Robbery
Aggravated Assault (#3)
Burglary (#2)
Larceny (#1)
Auto Theft
Arson
crime rate = (crimes reported/population) x 100,000
crimes committed per 100,000 people
applicable to any population size
National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)
transitioned in 2021
collects 52 offenses and 10 arrest only offenses
advantages:
more details than SRS
no hierarchy rule, female/male rape etc.
additional info on crimes
incident date and time, location data, property descriptions, drug types and quantities, gang involvement, computer use
additional info on victims
age, sex, race, and ethnicity for all victims and offenders
relationships between victims and offenders for all offenses
Consistent definitions across time and place
Substantial geographic coverage (82% of the US population)
Information on serious crime and some info on offenders and victims
disadvantages:
Excludes unreported crime
(Dark Figure of Crime - average 50%, up to 70% for some crimes)
Excludes some crime categories
Low clearance rate
does not cover all US population yet
Neither reporting system provides detailed information on offenders and victims
Victimization Surveys
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
began in 1973
150,000 homes annually
everyone 12+
measures crimes against people and households
victimizations
victims, offenders, crime event
reported loss and injury
reported or not
uses:
estimating the dark figure of crime
monitoring trends over time
examining characteristics/determinants of victimization
advantages:
Consistent definitions and methodology since 1973
Nationally representative
Comparable to UCR
Doesn’t depend on reporting to police
Includes information about victims
age, sex, race, ethnicity, marital
status, income, and educational level, relations with offenders
disadvantages:
Cannot be used to estimate one serious crime
Excludes some other crimes
victimless crimes, crimes against small children, crimes against businesses
Victims may under- or over-report
Limited information on offenders
Self-report Surveys
Participants reveal info about their criminal involvement in face-to-face interviews or anonymous questionnaires
National Youth Survey (NYS)
uses:
trends of drugs use
testing theories about causes and correlates
advantages:
Not limited to reported crimes
Not affected by criminal justice system bias
Can sample whatever population you want
May include various characteristics of offenders
socio-economic (family or neighborhood)
social psychological (attitudes, self-esteem, etc)
social relationships (family, peers)
other behaviors (school, leisure)
disadvantages:
validity of self-reports (underreporting)
the most serious crimes are rare and not measured well
geographic and population coverage limited
Chapter 3
Correlation vs Causation
correlation - a measure of association between and independent variable and a dependent variable
value of IV is related to the value of DV
may be positive or negative
correlation (r) varies in strength 0-1
r = 0: IV and DV are unrelated
r = (+/-)1: IV and DV are perfectly related
Criteria
Correlation is not proof of causality
correlation
association exists between IV and DV
temporal priority
to be the cause it must occur before
non-spuriousness
spuriousness - observed relationship is due to chance and some 3rd variable
ice cream sales and crime
not a casual relationship
Chapter 4
Review Sheet
most recent long-term time period in the second half of the 20th century when the US violent and property crime rates increased is 1980s
causes:
an increase in the incarceration of offenders
the booming economy and low unemployment rates of the 1990s
changes in illegal drug use and the drug trade
fewer people in the crime-prone age groups
more effective strategies of policing
more gang-intervention programs
more community crime-prevention programs
an increase in the proportion of immigrants in the population
Rates of violent crime in some African and Latin American countries are among the highest in the world
Japan and Jordan have crime rates that are among the lowest in the world
Homicide rates are about 4.5x higher in the U.S. than in Western European countries
Dimensions of Crime
cross-national variations
violent crimes: US low in developed countries
property crimes: US low/average in developed countries
regional variations
high rate of violent crimes n the south
subculture of violence hypothesis - a set of norms that regard violence as an acceptable response to certain situations
urban/rural differences
Victimization survey data indicate that rates of rape and sexual assault, robbery, aggravated and simple assault, personal and household theft, household burglary, and motor vehicle theft are higher in urban areas than in suburban ones
All of those rates except household burglary are higher in suburban areas than in rural ones
community variations
concentric zone model
Social Disorganization Theory
macro-level theory of crime explaining community crime rates
high crime areas are “socially disorganized”
weak social institutions
inability to regulate behavior
characteristics of high crime communities:
Residential instability
Low property values
Few home owners (most rent)
Ethnic heterogeneity
Crime and Immigrants
crime rates of successive generations of the children of immigrants did become more like the crime rates of the native-born, suggesting that crime is learned behavior and that socialization into the dominant American culture is associated with rising crime rates
Research confirms Sellin’s finding that crime rates rise for successive generations of immigrants’ offspring
violent crime rates decrease with increases in the concentration of immigrants in a metropolitan region or urban neighborhood
individual correlates
Age and Crime:
Evidence
youth are overrepresented in UCR arrests
1/4 are under 18
1/3 of arrestees are under 18
15-24 account for 44% of arrests
14% of population
age crime curve - index crime arrest rate peaks between 17 and 19 then decreases rapidly
violence peaks later that property crime
mostly invariant
Explanation
“none needed” but many offered
crime rates can change when age distribution of the population changes
increase of crime rates in every age group
abortions legalized in 1973
Importance
changes in age distribution affect overall crime rates
more youth = more crime
Gender and Crime:
Evidence
UCR data:
75% arrested are male
more serious the crime the higher the ratio of male/female perpetration
“gender gap”
smallest for larceny (35%)
largest for murder and robbery (10%)
decreasing over time
self-report data:
similar patter overall
differences smaller than arrest statistics
no differences for certain crimes
Explanations
chivalry hypothesis - women less likely to be arrested for crimes that men would be
Race and Crime:
Evidence
official statistics:
1/3 arrested are black compared to 13% of population
racial gap
smallest for property crimes (32%)
greatest for violent crimes (40%)
greatest for young males
self report data:
smaller differences than arrest statistics
similar pattern so more serious crimes
no differences for minor crimes
Victimization Data (NCVS):
racial gap victimization greatest for violent crimes
minorities disproportionately victimized
Social Economic Status and Crime:
Evidence
official statistics:
evidence is very limited
low education levels
marginal employment
self report data:
extreme urban poverty related to more serious crime
differences much smaller than official statistics suggest
no differences in minor crime
victimization data:
income negatively related to victimization
income differences greatest for violent crimes
relationship between social class and crime depends on:
type of data
measure of crime
measure of social class
Explanations
bias in arrest
seriousness is most important
may be affected by neighborhood social class
differences in crime type are greater than differences in rates
smaller or non existent for less serious crimes
white collar crime higher for whites and higher social class
Article
6 correlates of crime:
gender
age
socioeconomic status
religiosity
deviant peer association
marital status
Greece
age and crime - invariable
gender and crime - no correlation
socioeconomic status and crime - no correlation
Russia
age and crime - invariable
gender and crime -
socioeconomic status and crime - positive correlation
Ukraine
age and crime - invariable
gender and crime -
socioeconomic status and crime - positive correlation