Nationalism and Revolutions Study Notes

Nationalism and Revolutions

Introduction to Nationalism and Revolutions

  • Essential Question: What were the causes and effects of various revolutions from 1750 to 1900, including influences from the Enlightenment and emerging nationalism?

  • Famous quote by Joseph de Maistre: "Every nation gets the government it deserves." (1753-1821)

  • Overview of the conflict between new ideas and conservative thought, particularly noted in Edmund Burke and Joseph de Maistre as conservative thinkers opposing Enlightenment ideals.

  • Conservatives viewed revolutions as bloody, disruptive, and likely to yield negative outcomes despite the common people's growing desire for constitutional government and democratic practices during the 19th century.

The American Revolution

  • Roots of the American Revolution: Influenced by European Enlightenment philosophy and the economic ideas of the physiocrats - opposing English mercantilism.

  • Increased political independence among American colonists illustrated by colonial legislatures taking decisions typically reserved for Parliament. The vast distance from England fostered a spirit of independence.

Declaration of Independence

  • Date: July 4, 1776

  • Authored by Thomas Jefferson, who used John Locke's concept of "unalienable rights".

  • Key rights defined: "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."

  • Outcome: American victory in 1783, aided significantly by France.

The New Zealand Wars

  • Background: Occupation of New Zealand by the Maori since approximately the mid-1200s, developing a rich culture divided into tribes (iwi) that sometimes engaged in warfare.

  • Colonization began in 1840 with British annexation, leading to increased control over Maori affairs and pressure on their land, sparking a series of wars known as the New Zealand Wars.

  • By 1872, despite a sense of Maori nationalism and collective resistance, British forces emerged victorious.

The French Revolution

  • Revolutionary ideals in France summarized by the slogan: liberté, égalité, et fraternité (liberty, equality, and fraternity).

  • Economic Factors: France had deep financial woes, largely due to excessive spending (including aid to the American Revolution) prompting a meeting of the Estates-General in 1789.

Estates-General Structure

  • Three Estates:

    • Clergy (First Estate)

    • Nobility (Second Estate)

    • Commoners (Third Estate, 97% of population)

  • Voting inequality led to the Third Estate breaking away to form the National Assembly.

Key Events of the Revolution

  • Initial drive towards a constitutional monarchy, moderate figures like the Marquis de Lafayette among leaders; however, tensions escalated with King Louis XVI's threats against leaders of the National Assembly.

  • Storming of the Bastille: July 14, 1789, a pivotal event symbolizing the monarchy's abuses. Emergence of peasant uprisings and fleeing royal officials.

  • Adoption of significant reforms:

    • Abolition of Feudalism.

    • Declaration of the Rights of Man: A key document outlining human rights principles.

  • Radical shifts under Jacobins leading to the Reign of Terror, marked by extensive executions, including that of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette.

  • Rise to power of Napoleon Bonaparte, declaring himself emperor in 1804, following a period of turmoil.

The Haitian Revolution

  • Location: French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti), prominent for sugar and coffee production.

  • 1789: Slave revolts spearheaded by escaped slaves (Maroons) and inspired by the American and French revolutions.

  • Militaristic leadership under Toussaint L'Ouverture:

    • Known for strategic capacity and Enlightenment ideation.

  • In 1801, L'Ouverture claimed control, establishing a constitution that ensured equality and citizenship regardless of race.

  • Caught in betrayal by France, he was imprisoned but set the stage for Haitian independence.

    • Declaration of Independence (1804) led by Jean-Jacques Dessalines, marking Haiti as the first independent black-led republic and second independent nation in the Western Hemisphere overall.

Comparison with French Revolution

  • Both revolutions rooted in Enlightenment principles emphasizing natural rights. The Haitian Revolution was not just a challenge to oppression but aimed at abolishing slavery entirely. The differences in severity of constraints faced were highlighted.

Creole Revolutions in Latin America

  • Context: Creoles, European ancestry born in the Americas, spurred by Enlightenment ideals, desired independence from Spain.

  • Social Hierarchy:

    • Creoles (European descendants)

    • Mestizos (mixed European and Indigenous ancestry)

    • Peninsulares (born in Spain/Portugal)

    • Other groups: Indigenous peoples, African slaves, and mulattoes.

Discontents Leading to Revolution

  • Economic restraint from Spanish mercantilism, with mandates to only buy/sell to Spain.

  • Political power struggles, where creoles were denied key government roles, fuelling resentment.

  • Rising desire among mestizos for political influence and wealth redistribution.

The Bolivar Revolutions

  • Prominent leader: Simón Bolívar, emerging as a powerful revolutionary force, leading independence efforts across Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.

  • Bolívar was a wealthy creole motivated by Enlightenment beliefs promoting liberty and slavery abolition.

  • Jamaica Letter (1815): Outlined his vision for Latin America and called for the recovery of inherent rights.

Outcomes and Consequences

  • Post-revolutionary chaos led to emergence of caudillos—local strongmen intervening politically, ignoring democratic norms.

  • Social structures remained conservative, with constitutions failing to alter significant societal hierarchies; for instance, voting restrictions persisted for unlettered indigenous people.

  • Limited advances for women; most remained uneducated and subject to male domination, with notable figures like Manuela Sáenz, who actively participated in revolutionary efforts.

Later Challenges to Spanish Colonialism

  • Continued Spanish colonial rule in Caribbean territories like Puerto Rico and Cuba saw uprisings starting in 1868, led by individuals like Lola Rodríguez de Tió, who used her poetry to inspire revolutionary sentiments.

Propaganda Movement in the Philippines

  • Filipinos faced limited educational opportunities; elite students traveled to Europe, inspired by Enlightenment ideals.

    • Jose Rizal emerged as a key figure, leading the Propaganda Movement which sought autonomy rather than outright independence.

  • Rizal's execution prompted a strong response, triggering the Philippine Revolution in 1896,

  • Resulted from nationalistic fervor and desire for reform against Spanish oppression.

Nationalism and Unification in Europe

  • Rise of nationalism became a unifying force; connections were forged through common language and culture.

Italian Unification

  • Count di Cavour played a pivotal role', uniting Italy under the House of Savoy through practical politics (realpolitik).

  • Strategic manipulation of foreign powers, including managing conflicts against Austria and allying with Giuseppe Garibaldi and his Red Shirts to unite southern Italy.

German Unification

  • Nationalist movements surged post-Napoleon, culminating in revolutions; Otto von Bismarck utilized realpolitik to orchestrate wars against Denmark and Austria.

  • Led to the Franco-Prussian War, where victory provided the territory and momentum to establish the German Empire in 1871.

Consequences of Unification

  • Formation of Italy and Germany shifted the balance of power in Europe, setting the stage for future conflicts, including World War I. Significant social issues persisted, including poverty and emigration from Italy fuelled by economic struggles.

Balkan Nationalism

  • The Ottoman Empire experienced deepening decline; the rise of Greek nationalism was facilitated by exposure to Enlightenment ideas and national identity sparked by cultural pride.

  • Revolutions in regions like Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania followed suit, seeking independence through shared cultural and linguistic identities, often supported by external powers.

Ottoman Nationalism

  • Late 19th-century movements aimed at national unity led to Ottomanism, aimed at downgrading ethnic and religious differences but intensified nationalist sentiments within the empire's diverse populations.

Future of Nationalism

  • Trends suggest a potential decline in strict nationalism via increased regional cooperation in Europe, questioning the sustainability of nation-states as political entities.

Key Terms by Theme

  • Government: American Revolution, Declaration of Independence, French Revolution, philosophes, Declaration of the Rights of Man, Reign of Terror, Haitian Revolution, Bolivar Revolutions, Puerto Rico, Philippines, Italian Unification, German Unification, Balkan Nationalism.

  • Culture: France, Italy

  • Society: Maroons, Mestizos, Peninsulares, Mulattoes, Classes in society.