ch 12

Historical Evolution of American Secondary Education

• Religious Origins: Public education in the United States began with a strong religious foundation. The Puritans in New England established schools emphasizing literacy and scripture because they believed every adult should read the Bible. Catholic missionaries in the West established schools for ranchers' children to teach faith and reading.

• Early Schooling (Pre-1800s): Classrooms were rare for adolescents. Children were typically taught by parents or private tutors (for wealthy families). Most youth held apprenticeships with mentors to learn trades.

• Founding Fathers and Public Education:     * Thomas Jefferson: Attempted but failed to establish publicly funded schools in Virginia.     * Benjamin Rush: A Philadelphia physician and signer of the Declaration of Independence who established the "Female Academy" in Philadelphia and sought publicly funded schools in Pennsylvania.

• Expansion in the Nineteenth Century:     * Attendance Increases: In $1800$, the average American attended school for a total of $210$ days in their life. By $1900$, this figure grew to $1,050$ days.     * Modernization: Industrialization led to age-segregated classrooms instead of one-room schoolhouses.     * High Schools: Invented in $1821$. Initially, they were not open to minority students or poor teens who had to work, but they were open to girls. By mid-century, public funding for nonsectarian schools with uniform curricula became common.

The Ideological Conflict: Traditionalism vs. Progressivism

• The Traditionalist Argument: Education's purpose is to teach "the basics"—English, science, math, history, and foreign languages—to increase intellectual power.

• The Progressive Argument: Education should prepare students for life by teaching citizenship, home/family living skills, vocations, physical health, leisure use, and personality growth.

• John Dewey's Philosophy: Progressives, led by Dewey, believe schools should prepare students to be active, critical, and engaged citizens. They emphasize individual recognition, cultural sensitivity, and community participation.

• The Pendulum Swing: Educational focus shifts based on social needs:     * Rise in traffic fatalities led to driver education.     * Rise in premarital pregnancy/divorce led to family life education.     * Racial integration demands led to African American studies and busing.     * Feminism led to women’s and gender studies.     * Technological competition leads to math and science emphasis.

• Rise of Progressivism (Early 1900s): Fueled by the humanistic child-centered philosophy and a drive to align schools with economic/business needs.

Significant Legislation and Federal Policy

• The Sputnik Shock (1950s): The launch of the first space satellite by the Soviet Union led Americans to blame schools for a “watered-down curriculum.”     * National Defense Education Act: Congress appropriated nearly $\$1,000,000,000$ in federal aid to support math, science, and foreign languages.

• Education in the 1960s and 1970s: Shifted toward social relevance due to War on Poverty (Johnson administration). Education focused on adult roles, open education, and lowering graduation requirements. Science/math enrollment fell.

• PISA Scores (2012): American adolescents scored poorly compared to $34$ industrialized nations. Ranks: Math ($27^{th}$), Science ($20^{th}$), Reading ($17^{th}$). $25\%$ failed to meet minimal math standards.

• No Child Left Behind Act (2001): Launched by President George W. Bush based on four principles:     1. Accountability for success (reward/punishment).     2. Increased local control.     3. Expanded options for parents and students.     4. Promotion of specific teaching methods.     * Requirements: Yearly testing for grades $3^{rd}$ through $8^{th}$ in core areas.     * Criticisms: “Teaching to the test,” neglect of very weak or very strong students, loss of state authority to the federal government, and inadequate funding.

• Every Child Succeeds Act (2015): Retained yearly testing but granted more authority to states and broadened core subjects.

• Common Core Initiative: Developed by the National Governors’ Association and implemented by over $40$ states to ensure consistency and college readiness.

Middle Schools vs. Junior High Schools

• Evolution of Models: Moved from the 1-12 model to a 1-6 (Elementary) and 7-12 (Secondary) split, then to 1-6 (Elementary), 7-9 (Junior High), and 10-12 (High School).

• Junior High School Concept: “High schools for younger students.” Structured like high schools (frequent teacher changes, large enrollment, ability tracking).

• Middle School Concept: Proposed by William Alexander as a “school in the middle” to help the transition to adolescence.

• Stats: Historically, there are four times as many middle schools today as in $1970$ and half as many junior high schools.

• The Middle School Slump: Many students experience declines in motivation, achievement, and self-perception of ability when exiting elementary school. Some researchers suggest a K-8 and 9-12 model is more successful due to interactions with younger children and smaller adolescent populations.

• Characteristics of Successful Middle Schools:     * Specially trained teachers and ongoing professional development.     * Rigorous curriculum with life relevance.     * Caring, supportive, and respectful atmosphere.     * Success for all (strong and weak).     * Parental and community involvement (businesses, service centers).     * Encouragement of good health habits.

Educational Tracking and Ability Grouping

• Definition: Separating students into different classes based on competency in a specific subject (e.g., math or science).

• The Tracking Debate:     * Opponents: Fear unfair placement based on race/SES, difficulty moving to higher tracks, and decreased self-esteem for lower-track students.     * Proponents: Higher tracks move faster; lower tracks allow mastery at a slower pace and prevent feelings of incompetence in front of advanced peers.

• Mulkey et al. (2005) Longitudinal Study Findings:     * Tracked $24,000$ students from middle school through high school.     * Counterintuitive Result: Tracking benefited lower-tracked students more than higher-tracked students in math achievement.     * Self-Esteem: Higher-track students’ self-esteem suffered as they became “average” in high tracks. Lower-track students felt better among same-ability peers.     * Gender: Tracking benefited males more than females.

• Caveats: Teachers in lower tracks are often lower quality, and students are surrounded by disengaged peers.

Characteristics of Successful Secondary Schools

• School Size: Students perform better in schools with fewer than $1,000$ students but not extremely small schools. Reasons include:     * Active Participation: More roles in plays and sports are available in smaller schools. Large schools leave students on the sidelines.     * Teacher Monitoring: Better quality monitoring by staff.

• Atmosphere and Climate:     * Leadership: The principal sets the tone (high standards, fair discipline, spirit of cooperation).     * Safety: Hallway safety is critical; suspicion or preferential treatment deters achievement.     * Atmosphere of Learning: Invested students perceive school as relevant. Students should feel responsible for their learning, not held responsible for it.     * Respect: Higher student respect correlates with lower drug use and lower rates of depression.

• Teacher Strategies:     * Encourage discovery over rote memorization.     * Frequent feedback and high expectations.     * Allowing students options to demonstrate mastery.     * demonstrating support, warmth, and caring.     * Negative Expectations: Typically fall disproportionately on girls, minority groups, and low-income children.

Secondary School Curricula

• General Curriculum: Often for students uninterested in college or specific vocations. High numbers of dropouts and unemployed youth come from this track. Often taught by less experienced teachers.

• Vocational Curriculum (Career and Technical Education - CTE): Prepares students for employment through general education, specialized courses, and on-the-job training. In $2005$, $85\%$ of students took at least one CTE course; the average was $2.5$ courses.

• College Preparatory Curriculum: Aims for success in a four-year degree. $13$ states mandated this for all students by $2011$ to create a competitive workforce.

Student Engagement and International Comparisons

• HSSSE Results: Two-thirds of students report being bored at least once a day; almost $1$ in $5$ are bored in every class. Causes: Uninteresting/irrelevant material.

• Japanese Education System:     * Strengths: High status/pay for teachers, longer school year, belief that success comes from hard work rather than innate ability.     * Weaknesses: High stress (juku or ‘cram schools’ for placement exams), impersonal/rigid structure, rote memorization emphasis.     * Reform (2002): Introduced “integrated studies” for creative interest-based learning.

High School Dropout Factors and Consequences

• Historical Trends: Graduation rate for those under $25$ was $52\%$ in $1970$, $88\%$ in $1990$, and now approx. $93\%$.

• ‘Factories of Failure’: Schools where fewer than $60\%$ of first-years graduate. Concentrated in poverty areas. In $2002$, there were $2,000$ such schools; today there are $1,200$.

• Causes for Dropping Out:     * Early Childhood: Low birth weight and poor reading level in $3^{rd}$ grade are predictive of failure.     * Boredom/Alienation: Cited by the majority; $69\%$ were not motivated to work hard.     * Family Responsibilities: Girls pregnant are $10\text{--}12\%$ less likely to graduate. $1/3$ of Latina/African American dropouts cite pregnancy. $1/4$ of male dropouts cite fatherhood.     * Financial: Pressure to support family; lure of financial independence.     * Academic Factors: Truancy, learning disabilities, low IQ, being held back.     * Incongruence Between Home and School: Disparity in values (e.g., expressing anger, eye contact, competition) between low-SES/minority homes and school standards.

• Truancy Typology (Bimler & Kirkland):     1. Parents condone/encourage; truant is rebellious.     2. Parents condone/encourage; truant is not rebellious.     3. Unmotivated loners.     4. Unmotivated rebellious social group.     5. Well-socialized delinquents (popular with deviants).

Employment, The GED, and Higher Education

• Economic Impact of Education (2014 Median Salaries):     * High school dropouts: $\$488\text{/week}$.     * High school graduates: $\$668\text{/week}$.     * Bachelor’s degree: $\$1,101\text{/week}$.

• The GED: Over $600,000$ take it annually; $400,000$ pass. Earn more than dropouts but less than traditional graduates; less likely to finish college.

• Community Colleges: Enroll $40\%$ of US higher education enrollees as of $2012$. Approximately $50\%$ of bachelor’s degrees in the US are earned by students who attended community college.     * History: Evolved from “junior colleges” (1901) which were extensions of high school. The Truman Commission (1947) changed the name to community college.     * Trends: Community colleges are adding four-year degrees and honors programs to their curricula.

School Stress and Violence

• School Violence Statistics: Since $2000$, $63$ children/teens killed in school ($41$ at Sandy Hook, $3$ middle school, $19$ high school). Rate in 2006-07: $1$ death per $2,000,000$ pupils.

• Perceptions: $1/3$ of students fear injury at school. Implementation of security measures (metal detectors, guards) can sometimes make students feel less safe despite being safer.

Questions & Discussion

• Q: What is the purpose of public education?     * A: It varies between the traditionalist view (intellectual knowledge of basics) and the progressive view (life preparation and engaged citizenship).

• Q: What is the difference between a middle school and a junior high school?     * A: Junior high schools are structured like high schools for younger teens. Middle schools are intended to be conceptually different, specifically assisting with the developmental transition to adolescence.

• Q: Does fostering competition among students make them work harder and learn more?     * A: Many researchers believe competing against oneself (task mastery) is more effective than competing against others. Grades should reflect improvement rather than just comparison.

• Q: Do students fare better in large schools or small schools?     * A: Small schools (under $1,000$) are generally better as students feel less anonymous and have higher participation in activities.

• Q: What can teachers do to help students be successful in school?     * A: Be flexible, patient, and set high expectations while showing faith in students' abilities and caring for their success.

• Q: What is the relationship between getting pregnant and dropping out of school?     * A: Pregnancy increases the likelihood of dropping out, and dropping out increases the likelihood of a subsequent pregnancy.

• Q: What can parents do to help their children be successful in school?     * A: Provide encouragement, take an active interest (monitoring homework, knowing teachers), and avoid excessive pressure.

• Private Schools:

  • Funded through tuition paid by families and private donations.

  • Have more control over their curricula and may not be required to follow state educational standards.

  • Generally have smaller class sizes and a more selective admission process.

• Public Schools:

  • Funded by local, state, and federal government taxes.

  • Must follow state educational standards and guidelines.

  • Open to all students within a district and do not charge tuition.

• Charter Schools:

  • Publicly funded but operate independently of the traditional public school system.

  • Established by a charter or contract which grants them more flexibility in their operations than traditional public schools.

  • Must meet specific educational goals outlined in their charter to remain open and can be closed if they fail to meet those goals.