Ap Human Geography Vocabulary

Map Types

  • Reference map - Displays boundaries, names, and identifiers of geographic areas, cultural and physical features.

    • Ex. Map of Louisville or World

  • Thematic map - Emphasizes a particular theme or topic (focus of Human Geography).

  • Cartogram - Distorts land area to show changes in value.

    • The greater the value, the greater the land area.

  • Choropleth Map - Uses different shades to show the variation of values.

    • Darker shade typically means higher, more dense value.

  • Dot Map - Uses dots to show different values.

    • More dots = Greater value

  • Graduated Symbol - Uses a symbol to represent a certain value.

    • Larger symbol = Higher value

  • Isoline Maps - Maps with lines drawn to link different places that share a common value.

Maps and Spatial Patterns

  • Relative space - Space created and defined by humans through interaction with the environment.

  • Absolute: Quantitative (numerical) measure (e.g., location: 30°N30°N, 25°W25°W; distance: in mi., km., etc.; direction: north, south, east, west).

  • Relative: Qualitative (descriptive) measure represented by comparing to a known geographical feature (e.g., location: near the Washington Monument; distance: 30 minutes South; direction: left, right, front, etc.).

  • Spatial patterns represented on maps:

    • Uniform - Evenly spaced

    • Clustering/Clumped - Grouped/bunched together

    • Dispersal/Scattered - Distributed over a wide area

    • Elevation - Levels of high/low on Earth's surface

    • Agglomeration - Grouped together purposely

    • Sinuous - Wavy configuration

    • Random - No specific pattern

    • Linear - Line configuration

MAP PROJECTIONS

  • Map projection - Transformation of latitudes and longitudes from a sphere (Earth) to a flat surface (map).

  • All map projections distort the surface (distance, direction, area, or scale) in some fashion.

  • Mercator Projection

    • Type & Creator: Conformal, 1569 - Gerardus Mercator

    • Benefits: Preserves 90°90° angles and straight lines of longitude and latitude; Shows true direction

    • Distortion: Poles appear much larger than they are (areas become larger with latitude)

  • Robinson Projection

    • Type & Creator: Compromise, 1963 - Arthur Robinson

    • Benefits: Not much distortion of continents (size is preserved)

    • Distortion: Distorts poles

  • Peters Projection

    • Type & Creator: Equal-Area, 1967 - Arno Peters

    • Benefits: Shows accurate shapes and sizes (area) of land masses; Superior alternative to Mercator

    • Distortion: Distorts oceans; Distorts land size; Distorts parallels of latitude

  • Polar Projection

    • Type & Creator: Azimuthal Equidistant, 1581- Guillaume Postel

    • Benefits: Distances from the center (poles) are preserved

    • Distortion: Distorts poles

Geospatial Technologies

  • Geographic Information System (GIS):

    • System to collect, store, analyze, and present georeferenced data (data tied to locations).

    • Built around spatial and attribute information.

  • Remote Sensing:

    • Gathers information on Earth using sensors on aircrafts and satellites without physical contact.

  • Satellite Navigational Systems:

    • System of satellites providing geospatial positioning.

    • Ex:

      • Russia’s Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS)

      • China’s BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS)

      • United States’ Global Positioning System (GPS)

Observations Of Spatial Information

  • Field Observations: Observing people in absolute space and situations (architecture, land use, settlement patterns, climate effects).

  • Media Reports: Communication from media companies about different human interactions (land use, agricultural patterns, economic impacts).

  • Travel Narratives: First-hand accounts from people visiting a place (settlement patterns, transportation, land use, architecture).

  • Policy Documents: Official papers defining rules and regulations (land use, settlement patterns, economic impacts).

  • Personal Interviews: Explanations of observations or opinions (transportation, settlement patterns, economic impacts).

  • Landscape Analysis: Study of land use and human environment interactions (land use, agricultural practices, architecture, climate effects).

  • Photographic Interpretation: Studying photographs (agricultural practices, land use, settlement patterns, architecture, transportation).

Power of Data

  • Geospatial Data:

    • Data with a geographic aspect referring to a position on Earth.

    • Processed and analyzed by geographical tools (Remote Sensing, GPS, and GIS).

    • Vector Data: Uses points, lines, and polygons; represents spatial features (cities, roads, and streams).

    • Raster Data: Made up of grid cells and pixels; shows elevation, satellite images, or paper maps.

Spatial Concepts

  • Absolute space: Area with precisely measured dimensions.

  • Relative Space: Created and defined by human interactions.

  • Absolute Location: Fixed location (latitude and longitude).

    • Ex: Louisville is 38.2527°N38.2527° N, 85.7585°W85.7585° W

  • Relative Location: Position in respect to other places.

    • Ex: Kentucky is north of Tennessee, south of Indiana

  • Distance Decay: Tapering off of a process due to distance.

  • Time-Space Compression: Advances in transportation and communication lessen the effect of distance.

  • Place: Locality distinguished by physical and social characteristics.

Nature and Society

  • Determinism: Natural factors solely control human development.

    • Basic Concept: Human behavior is determined by the natural climate.

    • Example: Tropical climate initiates laziness/relaxation

  • Possibilism: People use creativity to adapt to the environment.

    • Basic Concept: Humans have choices, and their decision-making determines their success.

    • The natural environment is a factor that develops human culture

    • Example: air conditioning can be used to make hot weather places more livable

Scale of Analysis

  • Scale: The relationship of the size of a map to the amount of area it represents on Earth.

    • Large scale: Shows less area in greater detail.

    • Small scale: Shows larger area in less detail.

  • Scale of analysis: The level at which data is displayed.

    • Global

    • Regional

    • National

    • Local

Regional Analysis

  • Formal Region:

    • Region described by unifying cultural or physical characteristics.

    • Traits: Religion, language, political boundaries, ethnicity

    • Ex: Dairy Belt, a country such as India

  • Functional Region:

    • Region defined by a political, social, or economic characteristic and a center of activity (node).

    • What is the activity? What is the extent of influence of the node?

    • Ex: Louisville's transportation service (TARC), LMPD's service in Jefferson County

  • Perceptual Region (Vernacular Region):

    • Region defined by a population's sense of identity and attraction with less defined boundaries.

    • Ex: The American South

Population Distribution

  • 3 Basic Dispersion Patterns

    • Uniform - equally-spaced apart

    • Random - no predictable pattern

    • Clumped - bunched in groups

  • Climate: extreme areas have low population density

  • Water Bodies: river valleys promote human settlements

  • Landforms: rugged terrain restricts population concentration

  • Politics: stable governments have high population density

  • Economy: developed markets and skilled workers bring in high populations

  • Culture: cultural practices and ethnic relationships influence settlement

  • History: ancient settlement locations and colonialism have impacted pop. distribution

Population Density

  • Population density is the pressure a population exerts on the land.

  • ARITHMETIC DENSITY: Number of people per unit of land.

    • ArithmeticDensity=TotalPopulationTotallandareaArithmetic Density = {Total Population \over Total land area}

  • PHYSIOLOGICAL DENSITY: Number of people per unit of arable land.

    • Arable land: land that can be used for agriculture

    • Takes into account some of land may be inhospitable

    • PhysiologicalDensity=TotalPopulationTotalarablelandPhysiological Density = {Total Population \over Total arable land}

  • AGRICULTURAL DENSITY: # of farmers per unit of arable land.

Consequences of Population Distribution

  • Population distribution is the way people are clustered across the globe (mainly in cities).

  • High Rural-Urban Migration Leads To:

    • Social and Economic Consequences: Aging population in rural areas, lack of housing, spread of diseases.

    • Environmental Consequences: Strain on resources, high concentration of manufacturing, and large amounts of pollution.

Population pyramids

  • Definition: a bar graph that shows the age and gender composition of a population; helps us see population change in a country

  • Divided by gender – females on the right, males on the left

  • Shows population or population percentage

  • Age cohorts: usually each a five-year age span, up to 100 (males and females are both represented from these groups).

Population Dynamics

  • Looks at how the population of a region, a country or even the world changes.

  • 3 factors contribute to population growth and decline

    • Fertility - Crude Birth Rate (CBR) - # of births per 1000 people per year

    • Mortality - Crude Death Rate (CDR) - # of deaths per 1000 people per year

    • Migration - Movement of people to a new area.

      • Immigration - Movement into a country.

      • Emmigration - Movement out of a country.

  • The RNI is High in LDCs due to their CBR being high and Low in MDCs due to their CDR being high and CBR being low

  • RNI=(CBR−CDR)10RNI= {(CBR-CDR) \over 10}

  • Doubling time - Doublingtime=71RNIDoubling time = {71 \over RNI}

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

  • Shows population change over time.

  • Observed by Warren Thompson; based off population trends in Europe

  • Relates changes in RNI to social change as a result of urbanization and industrialization.

  • Describes a shift from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates over time.

  • 5 Stages: High stationary, Early expanding, Late expanding, Low stationary, Declining

The Epidemiological Transition

  • The shift from infectious diseases to chronic diseases.

  • Aligns with the demographic transition model (DTM).

  • The main cause of death in LDCs are due to infectious diseases

  • The main cause of death in MDCs are due to chronic diseases

Malthusian Theory

  • THOMAS MALTHUS:

    • Population growth leads to poverty and misery and would outgrow food production.

    • Positive Checks: Reduce population; famine, disease, etc.

    • Preventative Checks: Actions to prevent population growth; postponing marriage, less sex, etc.

  • NED-MALTHUSIANS:

    • Want strict population control

  • ESTER BOSERUP:

    • As the population grows, there would be more technologies to produce more food.

    • Cornucopian Theory: People are a valuable resource and can innovate ways to expand

Population Policies

  • Pro-Natalist Policies: Increase Birth Rates /Total Fertility Rates.

    • When: DTM Stages 4-5

    • Why: Low Population/Low Fertility Rates/Aging population

    • Potential Policies: Banning sales of contraceptives, Antiabortion laws, Tax credits,

  • Anti-Natalist Policies: Decrease Birth Rates /Total Fertility Rates.

    • When: DTM Stage 2-3

    • Why: Low resources available

    • Potential Policies: Cheaper sales of contraceptives/family education for marriage

Women and Population

  • Education:

    • Increased education leads to: decreased fertility rates but increased participation in the work force.

      • More prominent in MDCs

  • Fertility:

    • Lower in MDCs, higher in LDCs

  • Economic Roles:

    • Women have uneven participation in different sectors of the economy; underrepresented in STEM.

    • Gender Wage Gap- women are paid less than men.

  • Political Roles:

    • Women participate less in political affairs than men (lessened in recent decades in MDCs).

  • Mortality:

    • Educated women have a lower mortality rate that can support themselves financially and have access to healthcare

Aging Population

  • Death Rates Decreasing

    • Better Healthcare/Improved medical technology/Less infectious diseases

  • Birth Rates Decreasing

    • Education of women/Less desire for large families/Increased use of contraception/ Rising cost of having/raising children

  • Effects:

    • Not as many people in the workforce

    • Money spent on healthcare increases

    • Services for elderly increase ex: retirement homes

  • Politicians become conservative to appeal to elderly

  • Blue zone Areas that have populations with substantially long lives

  • Age-dependency Ratio

    • Age−dependencyRatio=Numberofpeopleunder15andover65Numberofpeoplebetween15and65Age-dependency Ratio = {Number of people under 15 and over 65 \over Number of people between 15 and 65}

Causes Of Migration

  • Migration

    • the relocation of people to a new place for long periods of time

  • Voluntary migration

    • migration that occurs by choice (every voluntary migration is a combination of push and pull factors)

  • Forced migration

    • when migration of people occurs not by choice but is insisted upon by some entity (forced migration, it is all push factors)

Forced and Voluntary Migration

  • Migration = permanent or long term relocation from one place to another place.

  • Emigration = departure from point A (out-migration).

  • Forced Migration = group/person has no choice but to relocate due to a lack of safety or persecution.

    • Can include Human Trafficking - women and children forced to move and work in exploitative conditions.

    • Asylum = granted protection from a country to an asylum seeker (seeking protection).

    • Refugees = people who flee their country over fear of persecution/safety into another country.

    • IDPs = internally displaced persons, people forced out of one part of their country to another part of their country because of fear.

  • Voluntary Migration:

    • Migration chosen/desired by the group/person.

    • Adheres to Ravenstein's Laws of Migration (unmarried, about 25 years old).

    • Push Factors = reasons for wanting to leave (natural disasters, lack of jobs etc)

    • Pull Factors = reasons for wanting to move somewhere else (job opportunities, stable government etc)

•Effects of Migration•

  • Unauthorized Immigrant: People who come to a country, but either don’t enter or don’t remain legally

  • Brain Drain: The emigration of people who are highly trained or educated from a particular country.