The History and Transformation of Modern China: From Revolution to Global Powerhouse
Initial Situation and the Rise of Communism in China
The historical point of departure for modern China was characterized by the collapse of the imperial system and significant external pressure. China was largely occupied by various great powers, leading to widespread hunger and poverty among the population. The imperial Kaiserhaus (Kaiser house) blocked necessary reforms, which eventually led to the Sturz des Kaisers (fall of the Emperor) in 1912. Following this, the Guomindang-Partei (Kuomintang) emerged as the dominant force, yet the general conditions for the citizens did not improve. This dissatisfaction led to the Gründung (founding) of the Kommunistische Partei Chinas (Communist Party of China or KPCh). A period of intense conflicts ensued between the Nationalpartei (the Guomindang) and the KPCh. During this struggle, the Communists were forced into a strategic retreat known as „Der lange Marsch" (The Long March) toward the north of China. This march lasted nearly a year and covered a distance of approximately . Although the loses were high, exceeding , it was declared a „großer Sieg" (great victory) by the Communists as it allowed Mao Zedong to position himself at the pinnacle of the movement.
In 1937, the Japanese attack on China forced a temporary Zweckbündnis (alliance of convenience) between the Guomindang and the KPCh, forming the Nationale Front (National Front), which lasted until 1941. However, after the defeat of Japan in World War II, the civil war reignited. Mao Zedong eventually prevailed, resulting in the proclamation of the Volksrepublik China (People's Republic of China) on the mainland in October 1949.
Mao Zedong’s Radical Transformations and Mass Campaigns
For the Communists, the assumption of power was viewed as both an act of decolonization and a revolution. Western-owned companies were placed under state supervision and eventually forced to surrender their operations. To rapidly enforce social and economic changes, the government, industry, and the party itself were „cleaned" (purged) of old forces. Mao Zedong organized multiple mass campaigns targeting corruption, bribery, waste, bureaucratism, tax evasion, and the theft of state property. These campaigns opened a form of Klassenkampf (class struggle), during which both small and large private entrepreneurs were expropriated, and millions of citizens were sentenced to death. By the end of this process, the old social classes were disempowered and replaced by KPCh members.
One of the most significant changes was the Bodenreform (land reform). The Communists brought landowners before Volksgerichte (people's courts), accusing them of being exploiters. Their property was confiscated and redistributed to landless workers and poor peasants. In total, of all land changed ownership, but the human cost was immense, with an estimated five million lives lost. This was followed by the Kollektivierung (collectivization) of agriculture. Initially, peasants were organized into mutual aid groups, then into agricultural production cooperatives, and finally into larger units. By the end of 1956, China was fully collectivized, turning independent farmers into dependents of the state.
The Great Leap Forward and the Great Famine
The first Five-Year Plan ( to ) followed the Soviet model and prioritized heavy industry at the expense of agriculture. To accelerate China's transition into an industrial state without significant capital for expensive technology, the campaign known as „Der große Sprung nach vorn" (The Great Leap Forward) was launched. The working population was organized into „Produktionsarmeen" (production armies) and Volkskommunen (people's communes). In these communes, family structures were dissolved; men and women were fed in large canteens, while children and the elderly were cared for in state homes. The goal was the total abolition of private property. However, this economic restructuring failed catastrophically and led to the largest man-made famine in history. Between and people perished because of this failure.
The Cultural Revolution and the Mao Cult
Between 1961 and 1965, more moderate circles within the KPCh exerted influence, lifting economic constraints and offering material incentives. Mao Zedong viewed this as a return to capitalism and, in late 1965, initiated the Große Proletarische Kulturrevolution (Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution). Although officially ended in April 1969, it continued in rural areas until 1976. This movement targeted those in power who were perceived to be following the „capitalist road." With the help of the army and students organized into Rote Garden (Red Guards), an attack was launched against the „Four Olds": old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits. Approximately people were affected; hundreds of thousands died, and irreplaceable artifacts of ancient Chinese culture were destroyed.
The Red Guards followed a strict program published in August 1966, which included rules such as every citizen performing manual labor, hanging pictures/quotes of Mao in all public spaces, and mandatory study of Mao’s teachings from kindergarten. Opposition was ruthlessly eliminated, and luxury items, cosmetics, and „non-proletarian" clothing were banned. Intellectuals were sent to work in villages, and books not reflecting Mao’s thought were burned. This period solidified the Mao-Kult (Mao cult), reinforced by the widespread use of the „Mao Bible."
China Opens Up and the Era of Deng Xiaoping
Mao Zedong and Premier Zhou Enlai both died in 1976. In the subsequent power struggle, Deng Xiaoping (born 1904) emerged as the leader. Deng had joined the KPCh in the 1920s while a student in France and had survived being twice purged during the Cultural Revolution. He ended Mao’s policy of permanent revolution and continued the „Vier Modernisierungen" (Four Modernizations) in agriculture, industry, defense, and science/technology first proposed by Zhou Enlai in 1975. Deng oversaw the transformation from a centralist command economy to a state-controlled market economy. Profit and performance became the yardsticks of economic policy; Volkskommunen were dissolved, state industry was reformed, and private entrepreneurs and Sonderwirtschaftszonen (Special Economic Zones) were introduced to attract foreign investors with tax benefits.
Foreign policy also shifted dramatically. In the 1960s, China broke ties with the Soviet Union (UdSSR) because Moscow refused to return territories ceded in the 19th century and would not assist China with the atomic bomb. By 1971, China's international status changed when the People's Republic became a member of the UNO (UN) and the Republic of China (Taiwan) was expelled. This paved the way for technical and economic cooperation with the USA, Japan, and Western Europe. From the late 1970s, Chinese students were allowed to study in the West and tourists were permitted to enter China.
The Democracy Movement and the Tiananmen Square Massacre
Economic liberalization led to the emergence of a democracy movement led by students and young scientists. They demanded freedom of speech, press, and assembly, oversight of public officials, Western-style multi-party democracy, and legal security. The KPCh leadership rejected these demands, arguing that individual human rights should not stand above state and societal interests. Tensions peaked in May 1989 during a visit by Soviet leader Gorbatschow, which ended nearly three decades of Sino-Soviet conflict. Approximately one million people demonstrated peacefully in Beijing for democracy. The protests expanded to include factory workers, causing the leadership to fear a general strike and the collapse of their power.
In the night from June 3 to June 4, 1989, the Volksbefreiungsarmee (People's Liberation Army) moved against demonstrators to clear the Platz des Himmlischen Friedens (Tiananmen Square). Violent clashes resulted in an unknown number of casualties; the Red Cross counted approximately victims. This led to mass arrests and international condemnation. While the West initially froze economic contacts, most nations, led by the USA, resumed relations within six months to avoid isolating China and to protect industrial interests.
China’s Rise as a Global Power and Future Challenges
To reconcile the public with the state, Deng Xiaoping focused entirely on economic growth. Between 1979 and 1997, the number of people living below the poverty line fell from to . Following Deng’s death in 1997, his successors continued his reforms, even accepting private entrepreneurs into the KPCh. The primary goal remains for China to become the world's largest economy and power, with political stability and the monopoly of the KPCh given absolute priority over human rights. Potential future challenges include creating enough jobs for a population growing by six million annually, combating environmental pollution (air/soil), addressing water shortages, satisfying the desire for democratization, and solving the issue of increasing inequality, as current growth has bypassed about one-third of the population.