The Philippines in the Nineteenth Century: Social, Educational, and Economic Contexts

THE SOCIAL ASPECT OF THE NINETEENTH-CENTURY PHILIPPINES

• Contextual Economic Drivers: Economic developments in the $19^{th}$ century precipitated significant social, political, and cultural transformations in the Philippines.
• Demand for Literacy: The transition to a new economy necessitated a more literate population to meet the rising demand for a professionalized workforce capable of managing trading activities in Manila and other major centers.
• Colonial Government Order of 1863: To address this demand, a colonial government order was issued in $1863$ requiring all towns to establish primary schools. The primary objective was to teach the population how to read and write (Wani-Obias, et.al, $2018$).
• Impact of Educational Reform: After approximately $300$ years of Spanish rule, the reformed educational system provided Filipinos the following opportunities:
  • The pursuit of higher learning.
  • The study of liberal Western ideas.
  • The development of valuable leadership skills.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

• Introduction of European Education: Spanish colonizers introduced the European system of education to the Philippine archipelago. Originally, schools were established and managed by Catholic missionaries.
• Compulsory Religion: Aiming to convert natives to the Catholic faith and ensure obedience, both the colonial government and the Catholic Church mandated religion as a compulsory subject across all educational levels.
• Leyes de Indias (Laws of the Indies): Established by King Philip II, these laws mandated Spanish authorities to educate locals in reading, writing, and the Spanish language.
• Barriers to Language Acquisition: While missionaries established schools, they did not seriously teach the Spanish language to the locals. This was driven by a fear that the natives, referred to as "Indios," would become knowledgeable and view themselves as the co-equals of the Spaniards.
• Literacy Statistics: Less than $\frac{1}{5}$ of those who attended school were able to read and write in Spanish, and an even smaller fraction could speak the language properly.
• Parochial Schools: These were the first formal schools in the land, opened in parishes by various religious orders, including:
  • The Agustinians
  • The Franciscans
  • The Jesuits
  • The Dominicans
• Primary Curriculum: Native children were taught the following subjects:
  • Christian Doctrines
  • Reading and Writing
  • Arithmetic
  • Vocational and practical arts
  • Latin (The official language of the Catholic Church, taught in place of Spanish)
• Disciplinary Measures: Spanish friars believed natives could not match their skills naturally; therefore, strict discipline and corporal punishment were utilized as tools for learning.
• Colleges and Gender Separation:
  • Colleges were established as the equivalent of modern-day high schools.
  • There was no co-education; boys and girls attended separate institutions.
  • Curriculum included history, Latin, geography, mathematics, and philosophy.
• Tertiary Education: University education began in the early part of the $17^{th}$ century.
  • Initial Exclusivity: Initially, universities and colleges were open only to Spaniards and those with Spanish blood (mestizos).
  • $19^{th}$ Century Opening: In the $19^{th}$ century, universities began accepting native Filipinos, though accommodations were generally limited to the sons of wealthy Indio families.
  • Curricular Focus: Universities maintained a heavy emphasis on religion and did not earnestly teach mathematics or science.
• Royal Decree of 1863: This decree called for the establishment of a public-school system. Consequently, in the last half of the $19^{th}$ century, education was administered by the government rather than solely by religious authorities, though the Church maintained control over the curriculum.

THE EMERGENCE OF THE ILUSTRADOS AND THE PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT

• Defining the Ilustrados: This "enlightened" class emerged from the growing number of educated natives. Despite their wealth and education, they were still regarded as inferior by the Spaniards.
• Aims of the Social Class: A primary goal of the Ilustrados was to achieve social and legal equality with the Spaniards.
• Impact of the Suez Canal: The opening of the Suez Canal made travel to Europe faster, easier, and more affordable. This allowed many locals to pursue higher education in Europe, specifically in cities like Madrid and Barcelona.
• Development of Nationalism: In the liberal atmosphere of Europe, these students developed a sense of nationalism and a thirst for reform.
• Key Figures: Prominent Ilustrados included:
  • Graciano Lopez Jaena
  • Mariano Ponce
  • Marcelo H. del Pilar
  • Antonio Luna
  • Dr. Jose P. Rizal (The Philippine National Hero)
• The Propaganda Movement: This talented group of students formed the Propaganda Movement to advocate for reform, using the Spanish language as their primary means of communication.
• Role of Jose Rizal: Rizal inspired the movement toward freedom and independence through his novels written in Spanish.

THE RISE OF THE CHINESE MESTIZOS

• Trade History: Trade relations between Filipinos and the Chinese existed since pre-colonial times.
• Spanish Policies and Suppression: The influx of Chinese settlements led to Spanish suspicion, resulting in stringent policies (Wani-Obias, $2018$):
  • Higher taxes.
  • Restriction of movement through the establishment of an enclave called the Parian.
  • Actual policies of expulsion.
• The "Necessary Outsiders": Despite restrictions, the Chinese became essential to the economy. Through intermarriage with Indios, the Chinese mestizo class was born.
• Social Ascendance: By the late $19^{th}$ century, prominent mestizo families were recognized for their wealth and became a major component of the Filipino elite.
• Liberal Influence: This elite group, often categorized as Ilustrados, was particularly receptive to liberal and democratic ideas arriving from abroad, despite the opposition of the reactionary, friar-dominated Spanish establishment (Dolan, $1991$).

THE RISE OF THE INQUILINO SYSTEM

• Definition of Inquilino: A tenant who rents land from landlords (typically friars) and then subleases that land to a sharecropper.
• The Three-Tiered System: This agricultural structure consisted of (Manebog, et.al., $2018$):
  1. Spanish Religious Hacenderos: Occupied the topmost level with direct authority over the land.
  2. Inquilinos (Lessees): Occupied the middle tier; they paid a fixed annual amount for the lease of the land.
  3. Sharecroppers (Kasama): Occupied the bottom tier; they worked the land under the Inquilinos.
• Profitability and Social Mobility: The system became highly profitable. Some Inquilinos acquired their own lands or entered other commercial ventures. Eventually, some ceased farming entirely, relegating all labor to their sub-tenants.