English 10 Study Guide

Three for Three Capitalization (1)

Capitalize the first word in each of the following situations:

  • sentences

    • Who would make that error?

  • quoted sentences

    • The teacher said, "Check for mistakes."

  • sentences after a colon

    • This is clear:  Our teacher does not like careless errors.

  • interjections

    • Man!  She is really picky.

  • lines of poetry

    • Two households, both alike in dignity, In fair Verona, where we lay our scene,

Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives.

  • Mrs. Dalton

  • Chinese food

  • United Nations

  • French-speaking province

Capitalize titles of people and artistic works.

  • Dr. Kevin Payne

  • U.S. New and World Reports

  • Captain McMann

  • "A Day's Wait"

  • Do  not capitalize a family title if you are referring to the person.  My aunt will be visiting this weekend.

  • Capitalize it if you use it instead of a name. Don’t forget to pick me up, Mom.

Other things to capitalize...

  • Specific events - American Civil War

  • Religions and their adherents - Christianity/Christian, Islam/Muslim

  • Religious texts/terms - Bible, Koran

  • Languages (This includes language classes) - English, French

  • Specific vehicles - Titanic, Challenger

  • Specific Groups - United Nations

  • Brand names - McDonald's, Apple

  • Months and days of the week (but not seasons) - March, Wednesday, summer

  • Holidays - Thanksgiving, Independence Day

  • Names of planets and objects in space.

  • I saw Venus through the telescope.

  • Do not capitalize “earth” when it means “dirt.”  

  • Do not capitalize “moon” or “sun” when not in a scientific setting.

  • Capitalize class names that include the name of a language 

    • I love English class.

  • Capitalize  specific course titles. 

    • Are you in World History 101?

  • Do not capitalize school subjects. 

    • I like studying history.

  • Don’t capitalize prefixes (pro-, mid-, un-, anti-) when they are attached to proper nouns. 

    • It gets warm in mid-April.

Capitalize the first person pronoun “I” every time you use it in an academic or business setting.

Three for Three Fragments (2)

A complete sentence must have a subject and a verb; additionally, it must contain a complete thought.

  • A fragment is a group of words that is missing one or more of these three essential elements. 

Fixing Fragments

  • To fix a fragment, you must expand the sentence or add to it in order to make it grammatical. 

  • This means that there are many correct ways to fix a fragment. 

Three for Three Run-Ons  (3)

Run-ons

  • While a fragment is an incomplete sentence, a run-on occurs when you string several complete thoughts/ sentences together without the proper punctuation. 

  • Types of run-ons 

    • Fused sentences occur when you smoosh two or more independent clauses (complete thoughts) together with no punctuation at all. 

    • A comma splice is when a comma alone is used to improperly join to independent clauses (complete thoughts). 

Fixing Run-ons 

  • Punctuation 

    • Two separate sentences (a period)

    • Compound sentence (a comma + a FANBOY)

    • a semicolon (with or without a conjunctive adverb + ,)

  • Sentence structure

    • Use a compound subject

    • Use a compound predicate

    • Subordinate one clause to another

    • Use an appositive to connect ideas

    • *CHALLENGE: Use a participle to connect ideas

Methodize Grammar Slam  (4)

Punctuation

  • Punctuation is one of the most frequently tested writing elements on the ACT English section. All punctuation follows certain rules that you must master through practice.

Clauses

  • Groups of words that build sentences. There are three major clauses you'll need to identify in order to understand how different punctuation works. 

  • Independent clause. 

    • "full sentence." 

    • These can end with a period

  • Dependent clause. 

    • Group of words that does not make a full sentence. 

    • These cannot stand alone...they must be paired with an independent clause.

  • Nonessential clause. 

    • A clause that adds information to the sentence but is not essential for the sentence's structure. 

    • Can be removed without ruining the sentence it's a part of. Dolphins—aquatic mammals—are highly intelligent.

Semicolons (; = .)

  • Look at the illustration above and memorize it. That's right...on the ACT, a semicolon does the same thing as a period. That is, it separates two independent clauses.

  • Rule

    • A semicolon can be used ONLY between two independent clauses.

  • Rule

    • If a set of answer choices presents a semicolon option and a period option with equivalent wording, eliminate both choices.

Colons and Single Dashes (: = —)

  • Rules

    • Colons and single dashes MUST be preceded by an independent clause.

    • Colons and single dashes mark off lists, definitions, and declarations.

  • Definition.

    • In the early twentieth century, the world was introduced to the most important innovation in personal transportation: the automobile.

  • Declaration. 

    • As the protest continued, the crowd swelled into the tens of thousands—a staggering figure considering the lack of support for the protestors early on.

  • List. 

    • The International Olympic committee decided that the 2020 Olympics would feature six new sports: baseball, softball, surfing, skateboarding, climbing, and karate.

  • The first rule is often where students get tripped up. You must make sure the first clause is independent! 

Double (Paired) Dashes

  • The other primary use of dashes occurs when they're paired.

  • Rules

    • Paired dashes are used to set off nonessential clauses, just like commas.

    • If a nonessential clause starts with a dash, it must finish with a dash; if it starts with a comma, it must finish with a comma.

Commas

  • Commas are the most versatile pieces of punctuation; this means they show up in a variety of contexts that demand careful attention. 

  • Setting off Introductory Phrases

    • Sentences often begin with dependent clauses that provide essential context about setting (time, place, circumstance, etc.) and background.

  • Separating Independent Clauses from Dependent Clauses

    • Commas can be used to create pauses between independent and dependent clauses. 

  • Clarifying the Subject of the Verb

    • Commas can be used to clarify the subject doing the verb.

When NOT to Use Commas

  • Commas aren't always necessary; sometimes, they're flat out wrong. Here are some guidelines for avoiding improper comma usage.

    • Splitting up Prepositional Phrases

      • Commas shouldn't break up prepositional phrases even when they seem to be creating nonessential clauses. You must test a suspected nonessential clause with the commas exaggerated to confirm whether it is indeed nonessential. 

    • Creating "Emphasis" Pauses that Lead to Fragments

      • We pause to emphasize something while speaking, but those same pauses—introduced by commas—would be incorrect if written.

    • Pausing Before and or but When the Subject or Verb Hasn't Changed

      • If, an, and, or, a, but, is being used to join multiple actions done by a single person/thing, or if two adjectives are used to describe the same thing, there shouldn't be a comma before it. 

      • Likewise, when two nouns are doing the same verb, there is no comma necessary.

  • There are two major times when a comma shows up before an and:

    • When and is used to signal the end of a list.

    • When a clause that could be independent follows the and.

  • FANBOYS

    • For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

    • When there are two complete ideas surrounding one of these words, there must be a comma before the conjunction.

  • When a Title Precedes a Subject

    • A title is a profession, designation, or other description that identifies or provides detail about an object or person. When a title precedes the noun it is linked to, you should not separate the two with commas.

Apostrophes

  • Apostrophes are used to do two things:

    • Create contractions (fusions of two words).

    • Create the possessive form.

Contractive and Possessive Homophones

  • When you see the following words, they are  ALWAYS AND ONLY CONTRACTIONS, NEVER POSSESSIVE

    • it's = it is. 

    • they're = they are. 

    • you're = you are. 

    • who's = who is. 

  • When you see the following words, they are ALWAYS POSSESSIVE

    • its, the singular possessive pronoun.

    • their, the plural possessive pronoun. 

    • your, the personal possessive pronoun.

    • whose, the interrogative (question) pronoun. 

  • Using Apostrophes for Possession

    • Possession is necessary when there is something that belongs to something else. 

  • Rule 1. 

    • Add 's to a singular noun to convey that it possesses whatever comes immediately after it. 

  • Rule 2. 

    • Add an apostrophe to a word that is already plural to convey that multiple things possess what comes immediately after it. When there are multiple possessors, simply add an apostrophe without adding another s.

  • NEVER USE APOSTROPHES JUST TO PLURALIZE WORDS

Commas Rule 1 (7)

The Comma

  • A comma is a punctuation mark that indicates a pause is needed in a sentence.

  • Commas help to clarify meaning for the reader.

  • However, there are very specific rules that govern the use of commas. You cannot simply live by the notion that you put a comma everywhere you pause when reading a sentence. 

  • Rule 1: Compound Sentences 

    • Place a comma before a coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses (coordinating conjunctions: FANBOYS). 

  • Rule 2: Words/ Items in a Series 

    • Use a comma to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series. 

  • Rule 3: Coordinate Adjectives 

    • Place a comma between coordinate adjectives. 

    • Coordinate adjectives are back to back adjectives that can be reordered. 

    • You can also place “and” between them and the sentence still makes sense.

  • Rule 4: Introductory Information

    • Use a comma after an introductory a.) word, b.) phrase, c.) or subordinate clause.

      • A sentence that consists of an independent and a subordinate clause is known as a complex sentence.

      • If the subordinate clause comes first, use a comma between the two. 

      • If the independent clause comes first, no comma is needed. 

  • Rule 5: Nonessential (Parenthetical or extra) Information

    • Tip: If you can cover the words that you think should be surrounded by commas and the rest of the sentence makes sense, it is nonessential and you set it off with commas.

    • Use a comma or commas to set off a noun of direct address. 

    • Use a comma to set up  conjunctive adverbs that interrupt independent clauses. 

    • Use a comma or commas to set off common expressions. 

    • Use a comma to set off a contrasting expression. 

    • Use a comma to set off nonrestrictive (non-essential) subordinate clauses. 

Rhetoric 

Rhetoric is the art of persuasion

Audience

  • the group or individual to whom a speech or written work is directed.

Rhetorical appeals 

  • Ethos: an appeal to the credibility of the speaker

  • Pathos: an appeal to emotion

  • Logos: an appeal to logic and reasoning

Rhetorical Devices  

  • Connotative diction 

    • a writer’s choice of words because of their associations or implications

  • Euphemism

    • The substitution of an inoffensive term (such as “passed away”) for one considered offensively explicit (“died”)

  • Imagery

    • painting pictures with words through the use of sensory language (5 senses) 

  • Repetition

    • the repetition of the same word or group of words

  • Hyperbole

    • Extreme exaggeration

  • Simile

    • Comparing two seemingly unlike things using like or as

  • Metaphor

    • A figure of speech in which an implied comparison is made between two seemingly unlike things that actually have something important in common.

  • Oxymoron

    • A figure of speech in which apparently contradictory terms appear side by side.

  • Juxtaposition

    • the fact of two things being seen or placed close together with a contrasting effect.

  • Antithesis

    • The juxtaposition of two opposite ideas in parallel structure to achieve a contrasting effect. 

  • Polysyndeton 

    • when several conjunctions are used to join clauses, phrases, or words in places where they are not necessary

  • Asyndeton

    • the omission or absence of a conjunction between parts of a sentence

  • Allusion

    • a brief usually indirect reference to a person, place, or event real or fictional  

  • Anecdote 

    • is a short and interesting story taken from a person's past experience - or that of someone they know or have heard about designed to create an emotional response.

  • Tone

    • A writer's attitude toward, subject, audience, and self.

Annotation 

  • The act of adding notes of explanation or comment to a text or diagram