Unit 1: 1491–1607
Early Population Diversity:
Recent evidence challenges the idea that all Native Americans descended solely from Mongolian migrants via the Bering Strait
Some migration may have come from farther south in Asia, including Polynesia and Japan
DNA evidence suggests there may have been populations with non-Asian characteristics, possibly from Europe or Africa, predating Columbus
Despite the dominance of Mongolian-linked characteristics in modern Native Americans, this does not prove they were the only migrants Earlier groups may have been eliminated or absorbed by Mongolian migrants
Most contemporary Native Americans share genetic and physical traits with Siberians and Mongolians, reinforcing a dominant migratory wave from Asia, but not excluding other migration routes
The Archaic Period (8000 BCE - 3000 BCE):
The Archaic period marks a shift from Paleo-Indian hunter-gatherer societies to more complex lifestyles This period lasted around 5,000 years
Early Archaic humans continued hunting with stone tools brought from Asia, pursuing large game like mammoths and later bison
The extinction of several large mammals during this period required societies to adapt by hunting smaller game and expanding foraging practices
In the Great Plains, people continued to hunt bison with spears, a practice that persisted into later centuries
New tools were developed, including nets, hooks for fishing, traps for small animals, and baskets for gathering plant-based foods
By the later Archaic period, many groups had transitioned to agriculture, primarily growing corn, which became the dominant crop across much of the Americas They also cultivated beans and squash
This shift led to the first sedentary communities and the foundations of larger, more organized civilizations
Civilizations in South and Central America:
Incas (Peru):
The Incas built the largest empire in the Americas, spanning nearly 2,000 miles along the western coast of South America
They originated from a small tribe in Cuzco, and their empire was largely expanded by their leader, Pachacuti (“world shaker”)
The empire was built not only by military conquest but also by diplomatic persuasion, convincing local leaders to align with the Incas in exchange for benefits
The Inca empire's administration was sustained by an innovative bureaucracy, including a tax system and a network of paved roads that facilitated communication and military movements
Olmecs (Mesoamerica):
The earliest complex society in Meso-America, established around 1000 BCE in what is now Mexico
Known for creating colossal stone heads, intricate art, and laying the foundation for future Meso-American civilizations
Maya (800 CE):
Developed advanced written language, a numerical system similar to Arabic numerals, and a highly accurate calendar
Created an extensive system of trade routes across Central America, facilitating the exchange of agricultural products and luxury goods
Maya society also developed significant achievements in astronomy, mathematics, and architecture, producing cities with grand pyramids and temples
Mexica/Aztecs:
By 1300 CE, the Mexica established the city of Tenochtitlán on an island in Lake Texcoco (modern Mexico City), which became the largest city in the Americas, with a population nearing 100,000 by 1500
The city was connected to the mainland by aqueducts and causeways, and it boasted impressive public buildings, schools, an organized military, and a medical system
The Mexica empire was built on a system of tribute, where conquered peoples were forced to provide crops, goods, and slaves
Human sacrifice played a significant role in Mexica religion, with prisoners captured in battle being sacrificed to appease the gods This was done on a much larger scale compared to earlier American civilizations
Civilizations in North America:
Arctic Region (Eskimos/Inuit):
Lived in the frozen Arctic Circle, relying on fishing and hunting seals for survival They traversed vast icy landscapes using dogsleds
Pacific Northwest:
Communities in this region were heavily reliant on salmon fishing, which sustained their permanent coastal settlements
Intense competition and often violent conflicts arose among tribes over access to natural resources
Far West:
Tribes in more arid regions built wealthy and densely populated communities based on a combination of fishing, hunting small game, and gathering wild plants
Some tribes developed elaborate crafts and were involved in extensive trade networks
Southwest (Pueblo Societies):
Inhabitants constructed large irrigation systems to sustain farming in the dry climate, particularly for crops like corn
Built large settlements, such as those in Chaco Canyon, featuring stone and adobe terraced structures (pueblos) that resembled modern apartment complexes
Great Plains:
Predominantly sedentary farmers, growing corn and grains However, some small nomadic tribes persisted, particularly those engaged in buffalo hunting
Buffalo hunting became a significant practice in the 18th century after the introduction of horses by Europeans
Eastern Woodland Indians:
Lived in the forested regions of what is now the eastern United States and engaged in a mix of farming, hunting, gathering, and fishing
In the Mississippi River Valley, they developed substantial permanent settlements and large trade networks One of the largest cities was Cahokia, which had a population of about 10,000 and contained large earthen mounds
Northeastern tribes, such as the Iroquois and Algonquians, were more nomadic, combining farming with hunting, and often cleared land by setting forest fires or cutting into trees to kill them
Their farming techniques were quick and temporary, with villages moving frequently as land became exhausted or polluted
Social Structures and Gender Roles:
Agricultural Revolution:
Across North America, societies became more sedentary, developing new sources of food, clothing, and shelter This led to population growth and more complex social customs
Communities developed elaborate religious rituals, often centred around the natural world—crops, game, forests, and rivers Many tribes built brightly coloured totems as part of these rituals
Large festivals were held during significant occasions such as harvests or major hunts
Gender Roles:
Tasks were divided by gender in most societies Women were typically responsible for caring for children, preparing meals, and gathering plant-based foods
In some cultures (eg, the Pueblos), men were primarily responsible for farming
In other tribes (eg, the Iroquois and Algonquians), women worked the fields, while men focused on hunting, warfare, or clearing land
Among the Iroquois, women often controlled the social and economic organization of settlements due to men's frequent absences for hunting or war
They played powerful roles within families and had significant influence on the community
Sky Woman (not on the AP exam)
A man and his pregnant wife visited the “Tree of Life”
The wife asked his husband, who was the caretaker, to dig at the roots to see what was under the tree
After uprooting the tree, the wife fell into the hole where the tree once was
She fell for a long time until some birds caught her and carried her onto the back of a sea turtle
The lady’s name was Otsitsia, meaning Mature Flower
The creatures called her “Sky Woman”
The creatures attempted to bring her some earth, with only the muskrat succeeding
As she walked around the turtle’s back, it expanded and land began to form
The woman gave birth to a daughter, who died giving birth to twin sons
Otsitsia buried her daughter on Turtle Island and corn, beans, and squash (staple foods) began to grow
She raised the boys, naming one Teharonhiawako and the other Sawiskera
Teha created animals, plants, and beautiful sights while Saw created jagged hills and predators
Teha was the good twin, while Saw was the bad one
When Sky Woman grew old and died, she became the Moon
After a contest between the twins, Saw was banished to the night
Teha would rule the day and Saw would rule the night
Major explorers: (Da Gama, Cabot, etc) What did each do?
Pedro Cabral
Commanded another voyage that was blown off course and ended up in Brazil, claiming it for Portugal on April 22, 1500
Christopher Columbus
Discovered the continents that would go on to be called the Americas on October 12, 1492
Amerigo Vespucci
Joined a four-ship expedition to find the passage to Asia in 1499
He sailed across the Atlantic Ocean and south down South America, failing to find a passage to Asia and returning to Spain
In 1501, he again sailed across the Atlantic, nearly going around the southern tip of South America
After thoroughly observing the native peoples, he concluded that the land could not be the Indies and believed that these lands had not yet been discovered
He named the lands Mundus Novus (new world)
John Cabot
Authorized to sail to all countries of the east, west, and north to discover new lands unknown to Christians
He discovered the shores of Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Labrador, believing that he had landed in Asia
After landing in Greenland on his second voyage, English interest in westward exploration waned
Vasco Da Gama
A Portuguese explorer who led an expedition to Calicut on the coast of India
Sailed to Calicut in 1498, returned to Portugal in September 1499
Profits of cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, ginger, pepper, etc covered the cost of his expedition 60 times over
Bartholomeu Dias
In 1487 and 88, Dias led an expedition that was caught in a storm and blew the ships off course, ultimately reaching the southern tip of Africa
Henry Hudson
Discovered the Hudson River in NY and Hudson’s Bay in Canada
Disappeared circa 1611
Martin Frobisher
Financed in the 1570s to find a Northwest Passage to Asia
Instead discovered what would become Labrador and Frobisher Bay
Voyages of Christopher Columbus
Columbus’s first voyage was in 1492 when he left Spain for Asia with about 90 sailors
He first sailed to the Canary Islands to restock and fix his ships before sailing westward
“Nothing to the north, nothing to the south”
After a month he had expected to reach Japan but had not yet reached land, but suspected by October 11 that they were reaching land
On October 12, Columbus reached San Salvador in the Bahamas, believing that he had reached the East Indies and claiming the island for Spain
In April 1493, Columbus returned to Spain and received the titles Admiral of the Ocean Sea and Viceroy and Governor of the Indies
He made three more voyages across the Atlantic, enslaving and killing Indians
The Taino tribe that he met on his first voyage had been completely wiped out
Explorations of Ponce de Leon, Francisco Coronado: Where did they explore and why?
Ponce de Leon
His ships landed on Florida's east coast near present-day St Augustine and claimed it for Spain, naming it "La Florida"
He encountered rough currents at one point and called it Cape Canaveral (Cape of Currents)
Natives resisted the Spanish incursion, driving them back to the sea
He was killed in a skirmish
Francisco Coronado
Heard reports of a city of gold (Cibola) from men who explored the north
Reached Hawikuh, believed to be Cibola, but Coronado burned the entire pueblo
His men continued east while others led by Pedro de Tovar travelled north
Pedro de Tovar discovered the Colorado River and the Grand Canyon
Coronado sailed up the Colorado River, learning of another city called Quivira (supposedly rich as well)
They did not find Quivira, and the men decided to return home
Lost Colony of Roanoke
Roanoke was the first attempt at English settlement in the New World
Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Walter Raleigh led an expedition to North Carolina, landing at Roanoke Island where they set up a colony
After some time, Governor John White went back to England to pick up resources for the 15 men in the colony, however, due to the Spanish-English War, he was unable to return for months
He later returned with 117 men, hoping to pick the 15 men up as a pitstop on the way further north however they were thought to be massacred
The men were missing, with the words CRO and CROATOAN etched into a tree
This signalled that the men had left the colony
It is theorized that the settlers went to live with the local Indigenous peoples, which is backed by the fact that local Natives were seen to have grey eyes, signalling some European genetics