Physical Training: the systemic use of the exercises to promote the body's fitness and strength.

1.1 The relationship between health and fitness and the role that exercise plays in both

• Health: a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease

• Fitness: an ability to execute daily functional activities with optimal performance, endurance, and strength to manage minimalist disease, fatigue, stress, and reduced sedentary behavior

The relationship between Health and Fitness

• Regular exercise and a balanced diet are the cornerstones of a healthy lifestyle, promoting physical strength, and mental well-being and reducing the risk of chronic illnesses.

  • Decreased fitness because of ill health, ie poor health can result in an inability to train, lowers fitness.

  • Increased fitness despite ill health, ie unhealthy but able to train, increases fitness.

1.2 The components of fitness, benefits for sport, and how fitness is measured and improved

The components of fitness

• Agility: the ability to rapidly change body direction, accelerate, or decelerate

• Balance: the ability to maintain their line of gravity within their Base of support (BOS)

• Cardiovascular endurance (aerobic power): refers to how well your heart and lungs can supply the oxygen you need while you exercise at medium to high intensity

• Coordination: the ability to execute smooth, accurate, controlled motor responses

• Flexibility: the ability of a joint or series of joints to move through an unrestricted, pain-free range of motion

• Muscular endurance: the ability to continue contracting a muscle, or group of muscles, against resistance, such as weights or body weight, over a period of time

• Power/explosive strength (anaerobic power): the ability to rapidly increase the force

• Reaction time: the speed at which an athlete responds to an external stimulus

• Strength (maximal, static, dynamic, and explosive): the ability to exert force to overcome resistance

• Speed: the ability to move all or part of the body as quickly as possible

Linking sports and physical activity to the required components of fitness

• Agility 

  • Helps the body to maintain proper alignment and posture during movement

  • Enhances balance and stability, coordination, body control, cognition, and reaction and recovery time.

• Balance

  • Enables an individual to perform harder, longer, and stronger

  • Prevents falls and reduces the risk of injuries

• Cardiovascular endurance (aerobic power) 

  • Improves stamina or the ability to sustain a high level of performance over an extended period, is closely tied to cardiac fitness

  • Helps control blood pressure 

  • Improves your blood lipid profile (cholesterol) 

  • Helps you burn extra calories to maintain an ideal weight

• Coordination

  • Enhances technique and form

  • Enhances their mood and mental health

  • Reduces the risk of injuries

  • Improves speed, power, endurance, and balance

• Flexibility

  • Enhances performance, and posture

  • Promotes efficient movement

  • Prevents incorrect body alignment 

  • Maintains appropriate muscle length and balance 

  • Decreases injury risk

• Muscular endurance

  • Helps to maintain good posture and stability for longer periods

  • Improves the ability to carry out daily functional activities, such as lifting heavy items

  • Improves posture

• Power/explosive strength (anaerobic power)

  • Improves reaction time

  • Improves force-time characteristics 

• Reaction time

  • Enhances sports performance

• Strength (maximal, static, dynamic, and explosive)

  • Enhances the ability to perform general sports skills

  • Helps to perform quicker and more powerful movements

• Speed

  • Enhance sports performance

Reasons for and limitations of fitness testing

• Reasons for Fitness Testing

  • to identify strengths and/or weaknesses in the performance/success of a training program

  • to monitor improvement

  • to show a starting level of fitness

  • to inform training requirements

  • to compare against norms of the group/national averages

  • to motivate/set goals

  • to provide variety in a training program

• Limitations of Fitness Testing

  • tests are often not sport-specific (too general)

  • they do not replicate movements of activity

  • they do not replicate competitive conditions required in sports

  • many do not use direct measuring/sub-maximal – therefore inaccurate/some need motivation/some have questionable reliability

  • they must be carried out with the correct procedures to increase validity

Measuring the components of fitness

• Illinois Agility Test: An agility test used in sports and athletics to evaluate an athlete's ability to change direction quickly and effectively.

  • Procedure: 

    • Athletes start in a laying position face down on the floor. 

    • They must then stand up as fast as possible and sprint forward 10 m to a cone, complete a 180° turn at the cone, and then sprint back 10 m to another cone and complete another 180° turn.

• Stork Stand Test: a static balance test on one leg, with closed eyes.

  • Procedure: 

    • Stand on your feet and keep your hands on your hips. 

    • Now lift your right leg and place the sole of the right foot against the side of the knee cap. 

    • Raise your heel from the floor so you are balancing on the ball of your foot. 

    • Ask your assistant to start timing as soon as your heel is off the floor.

• Multi-Stage Fitness Test: known as the beep test, bleep test, or the 20m shuttle run test. 

  • It is a continuous sub-maximal test that has become the most recognized tool for measuring aerobic power (cardiovascular endurance).

  • Procedure: 

    • The test consists of 23 levels, each level lasting approximately one minute. 

    • The starting speed is 8.5 km/hr and increases by 0.5 km/hr at each level thereafter. 

    • As the individual progresses through the levels, the speed between the beeps decreases giving the individual less time to complete each shuttle, thus increasing the intensity. 

    • A single beep indicates the end of each shuttle, while three simultaneous beeps indicate the start of the next level.

• Wall Toss Test: A test to measure hand-eye coordination.

  • Procedure: 

    • 1) A mark is placed a certain distance from the wall (e.g. 2 meters). 

    • 2) The person stands behind the line and faces the wall. 

    • 3) The ball is thrown from one hand in an underarm action against the wall and attempted to be caught with the opposite hand. The ball is then thrown back against the wall and caught with the initial hand. 

    • 4) The test will continue for a set time (e.g. 30 seconds). By adding the constraint of a set time, you also add the factor of working under pressure.

• Sit and Reach Test: A flexibility test that helps to measure the extensibility of the hamstrings and lower back.

  • Procedure: 

    • 1) Mark a baseline on the floor. 

    • 2) A ruler is placed perpendicularly to the baseline which crosses the baseline at 15 inches. 

    • 3) Sit with the heels on the baseline with feet 12 inches apart. 

    • 4) With the legs straight, slowly bend forward to reach the furthest point of the ruler.

• Sit-Up Bleep Test: A muscular endurance test that measures abdominal strength and endurance, which is important in back support and core stability.

  • Procedure: 

    • Participants are required to perform as many sit-ups as possible, keeping in time for the audio recording. 

    • The test is over when the subject is not able to perform the sit-up in time with the beeps or is not able to perform the correct technique.

• Vertical Jump Test: A power or explosive strength test to measure muscular strength and power of the lower body.

  • Procedure: 

    • Extend the dominant arm and fingers vertically above your head. 

    • The assessor will then set your reach height to zero (0) on the test gauge. 

    • Crouch down, and using the arms and legs jump as high as possible extending the dominant arm and tapping the gauge "fins" to mark the jump height.

• Ruler Drop Test: a test to measure an athlete’s reaction time.

  • Procedure: 

    • Person A holds out their hand with a gap between their thumb and first finger. 

    • Person B holds the ruler with the zero at the top of Person A's thumb. 

    • Person B drops the ruler without telling Person A and they must catch it.

• One Rep Max Test: A test to measure the maximal weight an individual can lift for only one repetition with the correct technique.

  • Procedure: 

    • A series of single attempts should be completed until a 1RM is achieved. 

    • Rest periods should remain at 1-5 minutes between each single attempt and load increments typically range between 5-10 % for the upper-body, and 10-20 % for the lower-body exercises. 

    • 1RMs should be achieved within 3-7 attempts.

• Metre Sprint Test: A test performed over varying distances and relevance to an athlete’s sports to measure their speed.

  • Procedure: 

    • The test involves running a single maximum sprint over a set distance, with time recorded. 

    • After a standardized warm-up, the test is conducted over a certain distance, such as 10, 20, 40, and/or 50 meters or yards, depending on the sport and what you are trying to measure. 

    • The starting position should be standardized, starting from a stationary position with a foot behind the starting line, with no rocking movements. 

    • If you have the equipment (e.g. timing gates), you can measure the time to run each split distance (e.g. 5, 10, 20m) during the same run, and then acceleration and peak velocity can also be determined. 

    • It is usual to give the athletes an adequate warm-up and practice first, and some encouragement to continue running hard past the finish line.

• Handgrip Dynamometer Test: A strength test to measure the maximum isometric strength of the hand and forearm muscles.

  • Procedure: 

    • The subject holds the dynamometer in the hand to be tested, with the arm at right angles and the elbow by the side of the body. 

    • The handle of the dynamometer is adjusted if required - the base should rest on the first metacarpal (heel of palm), while the handle should rest on the middle of the four fingers. 

    • When ready the subject squeezes the dynamometer with maximum isometric effort, which is maintained for about 5 seconds. 

    • No other body movement is allowed. 

    • The subject should be strongly encouraged to give a maximum effort. 

• Testing Procedures: refers to ‘how each test is carried out’ and includes reference to how the test is organized (when applicable) concerning:

  1. the facilities and the equipment needed to set it up

  2. the procedures that have to be followed – the tasks and the rules

  3. the measurements that are used to score the performance

  4. the way conclusions are drawn from the scores/results.

Data Collection in Fitness Testing

• The order of testing will be dictated by factors such as:

  • Available time and equipment

  • Number of athletes to test

• Methods of measuring test scores based on components

  1. Agility and Speed

     • The score is based on the time taken to complete the test

  2. Coordination and Balance

     • The ability to maintain balance and perform coordinated movement is assessed

  3. Flexibility

     • The score is measured in centimeters or inches, determining how an individual can stretch

  4. Body Composition 

     • The score is based on body fat proportion relative to lean body mass

  5. Cardiovascular Endurance

     • The score is often based on the time taken to complete the set distance or the level reached in the beep test

  6. Muscular Endurance 

     • The score is based on the number of repetitions, amount of lifted weight, and/or exert force

  7. Muscular Strength

     • The score is determined by the number of repetitions or duration of the position held 

• Qualitative Data: These are non-numerical information that describes qualities or characteristics, providing a deeper understanding of the nature, attributes, and features of a phenomenon.

  • Subjective, descriptive, and often provide additional insights that quantitative data alone may not capture

  • Valuable for understanding the individual's experience, motivation, and perceived challenges

• Quantitative Data: These are numerical values and measurable attributes that provide information about quantities, amounts, and specific measurements.

  • Objective, precise, and can be easily quantified and compared.

  • Collected quantitative data in fitness testing can be compared to national averages.

1.3 The principles of training and their application to personal exercise/training programs

The principles of training and overload

• Key principles of training (SPORT)

  • Specificity: refers to ensuring that training is relevant to both the individual and their sport

  • Progressive Overload: a process of gradually increasing the frequency, intensity, time, or type of workouts over the training period 

  • Reversibility: refers to the ability to scale training back in the event of injury 

  • Tedium: refers to the variety required to prevent boredom and keep motivation

• Key principles of overload (FITT)

  • Frequency: refers to how often an exercise or workout is conducted 

  • Intensity: refers to how difficult an exercise is that can vary between light, moderate, and vigorous levels of workout

  • Time: refers to the duration of each workout 

  • Type: refers to what kind of exercise is done

Application of the principles of training

• Specificity

  • To condition the muscles that will be used in the target activity

  • Develops muscle memory to act without concentrating on them

• Progressive Overload

  • Choosing a goal, working out at a comfortable but challenging level, and then slowly increasing the intensity of the workouts over time

  • This may involve the discretion of rest periods, adding more weight, repetitions, or sets

• Reversibility

  • Individuals lose the effects of training after they stop exercising but the detraining effects can be reversed when training is resumed

• Tedium

  • Changing or adding training methods to prevent boredom

  • Incorporating rest days and relaxation methods can help your body recover and maximize your gains

Types of Training

• Circuit Training: A workout that involves rotating through various exercises targeting different parts of the body.

• Continuous Training: Sustained exercise at a constant rate without rests, involving aerobic demand for a minimum of 20 minutes (eg. running, swimming, rowing, cycling).

• Fartlek training: Referred to as ‘speed play’. A form of interval training without rest that involves a variety of changing intensities over different distances and terrains.

• Interval training/high-intensity interval training: Involves periods of work followed by periods of rest. 

• Static stretching: A way to stretch to increase flexibility, held (isometric) for up to 30 seconds, using the correct technique, advisable to avoid overstretching.

• Weight training: The choice of weight/exercise depends on fitness aim (eg. strength/power training or muscular endurance), the importance of safe practice/lifting technique, and the need for spotters.

• Plyometric training: Involves high-impact exercises that develop power. (eg. bounding, depth jumping). 

• Any training method must consider;

  1. The training purpose, training thresholds/training targets/training zones

  2. Rest and Recovery

Advantages and Disadvantages of Training Types

• Circuit Training 

  • Advantages

    • Can be adjusted and specified for certain sports

    • Can develop any chosen component of fitness 

  • Disadvantages

    • Takes time to arrange and often requires a lot of equipment 

    • Techniques can be affected by fatigue

    • Can increase the risk of injury 

• Continuous Training

  • Advantages

    • Ideal for beginners

    • Sustain a higher level of intensity

    • A way to burn fats and/or lose weight

    • Improves aerobic energy system

  • Disadvantages

    • Does not improve speed or agility

    • Can be extremely boring (repetitive)

• Fartlek Training

  • Advantages

    • Can be used to improve both aerobic and anaerobic systems, mixing moderate activity with bursts of speed

    • Can be varied to suit an individual’s fitness level

    • Prevents boredom

  • Disadvantages

    • Difficult to assess whether a performer is performing at the correct intensity 

• Interval Training/High-Intensity Interval Training 

  • Advantages

    • Gradually improves pace

    • Involves a mixture of aerobic and anaerobic exercise

    • Increases metabolic rate if performed correctly

  • Disadvantages

    • Increases the risk of injury (due to high-intensity training)

    • Hard to keep going when fatigue is experienced

    • Overtraining can occur

• Static Stretching

  • Advantages

    • Improves flexibility and posture 

    • Stress reduction (Relaxation)

    • Simple and accessible

    • Prevents injuries

  • Disadvantages

    • Reduces power and strength when performed before power and explosive strength activities

    • Overstretching

    • Need to be performed regularly to improve flexibility 

• Weight Training

  • Advantages

    • Improves muscular strength and endurance

    • Improves speed

    • Can aid rehabilitation after an injury 

    • Can be adapted to suit different sports

  • Disadvantages

    • Requires a lot of equipment

    • Can cause injuries if techniques are not performed correctly 

• Plyometric Training

  • Advantages

    • Requires little or no equipment

    • Effective in developing power

  • Disadvantages

    • Results to injury if not fully warmed up

    • Places great stress on joints and muscles 

1.4 How to optimize training and prevent injury

Training Threshold: an intensity that must be exceeded for a physiological adaptation to occur.

Calculating intensities to optimize training effectiveness

• Calculate the aerobic/anaerobic training zone:

  • calculate maximum heart rate (220 minus age)

    • Maximum heart rate can be based on your age. To estimate your maximum age-related heart rate, subtract your age from 220. 

    • For example, for a 50-year-old person, the estimated maximum age-related heart rate would be calculated as 220 – 50 years = 170 beats per minute (bpm).

  • calculate aerobic training zone (60–80% of maximal heart rate)

  • calculate the anaerobic training zone (80–90% of maximal heart rate).

• For circuit training, altering the time/rest/content of the circuit will determine the fitness aim.

• How to calculate one repetition maximum as part of weight training and how to make use of one rep max, concerning:

  • Methods to calculate one repetition maximum

    1. Direct Testing: This method involves attempting a one-repetition maximum lift. 

       • However, it's important to use caution, especially for beginners, and to have a spotter for safety.

    2. Repetition Maximum Prediction Formulas: The ACSM (American College of Sports Medicine) describes a protocol to follow to estimate the 1RM, usually for multi-joint exercises like bench presses or squats.

       • (1) Multiple the number of repetitions you can perform on an exercise to failure by 2.5, for example, a load you can lift 10 around times. 

       • (2) Subtract that number from 100 to determine the percentage of your 1RM. 

       • (3) Divide the above number by 100 to get a decimal value. 

       • (4) Divide the weight you lifted by the decimal value to get your estimated 1RM.

  • Use of One Rep Max concerning;

    • Strength/Power Training

      • determine the amount of weight you should be using in other aspects of your training

      • high weight/low reps – above 70% of one rep max, approximately three sets of 4–8 reps

    • Muscular Endurance 

      • performing more reps using a load that equates to 67 percent of your one-rep max weight

      • low weight/high reps – below 70% of one rep max, approximately three sets of 12–15 reps

Considerations to prevent injury

• The training type/intensity should match the training purpose (eg. aerobic or anaerobic).

• Factors that should be considered to prevent injury;

  • a warm-up should be completed

  • over-training should be avoided 

  • appropriate clothing and footwear should be worn

  • taping/bracing should be used as necessary

  • maintain hydration

  • stretches should not be overstretched or bounce

  • the technique used should be correct (eg. lifting technique)

  • take appropriate rest in between sessions to allow for recovery

Specific training techniques – high altitude training as a form of aerobic training

High Altitude Training: the practice of spending time in places high above sea level so your body adapts to less oxygen.

• train at high altitude

• there is less oxygen in the air and oxygen-carrying capacity is reduced

• the body compensates by making more red blood cells to carry oxygen
  

• How high altitude training is carried out:

  • ‘Live high, train low’ Approach: It involves living at high elevations, which allows your body to get used to low oxygen levels. 

  • You do more intense training at low altitudes, however. 

    • The goal is to gain the benefits of high-altitude adaptations while maintaining a high-intensity training routine.

• Benefits of Altitude Training

  • More oxygen flows to muscles

  • Increased aerobic capacity

  • Better lactic acid capacity

• Limitations of Altitude Training

  • Expensive

  • Altitude sickness

  • Difficult to train due to the lack of oxygen

  • Increased lactate production

  • Detraining because training intensity has to reduce when the performer first trains at altitude due to the decreased availability of oxygen

  • Benefits can be quickly lost on return to sea level

Seasonal Aspect

The 3 Training Seasons

1. Pre-season (Preparation): occurs just before the competitive season. 

   • During this phase, athletes transition from general preparatory activities to more specific and sport-specific training. 

   • Focuses on general/aerobic fitness, and specific fitness needs.

   • Pre-season training allows an individual to spend time working on their weaknesses, increasing tactical skills, and improving technical ability.

2. Competition (Playing Season): involves maintaining the gains made during the pre-season while managing the physical and mental demands of regular competition. 

   • Training during this period is often focused on maintaining fitness levels and working on specific skills

   • Playing season training maintains progress from the off-season, performs at a higher level throughout the season, better recovery between games and practices, decreases risk for injury, and enters the next off-season at a higher level.

3. Post-Season (Transition): The season that allows athletes to recover both physically and mentally from the rigors of competition. 

   • The post-season often marks the beginning of preparations for the next training cycle.

   • Focuses on rest and light aerobic training to maintain a level of general fitness.

   • Post-season training helps improve strength and flexibility, helping to move better during competition and reduce the risk of injury.

1.5 Effective use of warm-up and cool-down

Warm Up

• Warm-Up should include;

  • gradual pulse-raising activity

  • Stretching

  • skill-based practices or familiarisation

  • mental preparation

  • increasing the amount of oxygen to the working muscles

• Benefits of Warming Up

  • increases heart rate and blood flow

  • effect on body temperature

  • increases the range of movement 

  • reduces risks of injury

  • enables more oxygen to reach your muscles

  • gradual increase of effort to full pace

  • psychological preparation

  • practice of movement skills through the whole range of movement

Cooldown

• Cooldown should include;

  • maintaining elevated breathing and heart rate

  • a gradual reduction in intensity

  • stretching

• Benefits of cooling down

  • allows the body to recover

  • allows body temperature, blood pressure, and heart rate to return to their normal levels

  • reduction or removal of lactic acid/CO2/waste products

  • prevent muscle soreness, cramps, or stiffness