AP psych key terms
Suggested Structure for Flashcards
Nature-nurture issue (p. 4)
Definition: The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.
Charles Darwin (p. 5)
Key Fact: Naturalist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection.
Natural selection (p. 5)
Definition: The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
Evolutionary psychology (p. 5)
Definition: The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
Behavior genetics (p. 5)
Definition: The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
Mutation (p. 7)
Definition: A random error in gene replication that leads to a change.
Environment (p. 9)
Definition: Every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.
Heredity (p. 9)
Definition: The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.
Genes (p. 9)
Definition: The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein.
Genome (p. 9)
Definition: The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes.
Identical (monozygotic) twins (p. 11)
Definition: Twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.
Fraternal (dizygotic) twins (p. 12)
Definition: Twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.
Interaction (p. 15)
Definition: The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).
Epigenetics (p. 16)
Definition: The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.
Nervous system (p. 22)
Definition: The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
Central nervous system (CNS) (p. 22)
Definition: The brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) (p. 22)
Definition: The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.
Nerves (p. 22)
Definition: Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
Sensory (afferent) neurons (p. 22)
Definition: Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
Motor (efferent) neurons (p. 22)
Definition: Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.
Interneurons (p. 22)
Definition: Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
Somatic nervous system (p. 23)
Definition: The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles.
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) (p. 23)
Definition: The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
Sympathetic nervous system (p. 23)
Definition: The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
Parasympathetic nervous system (p. 23)
Definition: The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
Reflex (p. 25)
Definition: A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.
Neuron (p. 28)
Definition: (Please provide the definition for completeness)
Evolutionary psychology
Definition: The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
Behavior genetics
Definition: The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
Mutation
Definition: A random error in gene replication that leads to a change.
Environment
Definition: Every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.
Heredity
Definition: The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.
Genes
Definition: The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein.
Genome
Definition: The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes.
Identical (monozygotic) twins
Definition: Twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.
Fraternal (dizygotic) twins
Definition: Twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.
Interaction
Definition: The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).
Epigenetics
Definition: The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.
Nervous system
Definition: The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
Central nervous system (CNS)
Definition: The brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Definition: The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.
Nerves
Definition: Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Definition: Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
Motor (efferent) neurons
Definition: Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.
Interneurons
Definition: Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
Somatic nervous system
Definition: The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles.
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Definition: The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
Sympathetic nervous system
Definition: The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
Parasympathetic nervous system
Definition: The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
Reflex
Definition: A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.
Neuron
Definition: (Please provide the definition for completeness)
Threshold (p. 30): The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
Refractory period (p. 30): The brief period after an action potential during which a neuron is unable to fire again.
All-or-none response (p. 30): A neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing at all.
Synapse (p. 31): The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.
Neurotransmitters (p. 31): Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.
Reuptake (p. 32): The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron after transmitting a neural impulse.
Endorphins (p. 34): Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure.
Agonist (p. 34): A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action.
Antagonist (p. 34): A molecule that blocks a neurotransmitter's action.
Endocrine system (p. 35): The body's slow chemical communication system, consisting of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
Hormones (p. 36): Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands.
Psychoactive drug (p. 40): A chemical that alters perceptions and moods.
Substance use disorder (p. 40): A condition characterized by the compulsive use of drugs despite harmful consequences.
Depressants (p. 41): Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
Tolerance (p. 43): The diminishing effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration.
Addiction (p. 43): Compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences.
Withdrawal (p. 43): The discomfort and distress that follow the discontinuing of an addictive drug.
Barbiturates (p. 44): Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.
Opioids (p. 44): Synthetic drugs that mimic endorphins, often used for pain relief but with high potential for addiction.
Stimulants (p. 45): Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
Hallucinogens (p. 50): Drugs that distort perceptions and create hallucinations.
Near-death experience (p. 50): An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death, typically involving feelings of detachment, peace, and visions.
Brain Imaging Techniques and Structures
Brain Imaging Techniques
Lesion: Damage to a specific area of the brain, often studied to understand its function (p. 58).
EEG (Electroencephalogram): A test that detects electrical activity in the brain using small electrodes attached to the scalp (p. 58).
MEG (Magnetoencephalography): A technique for mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by neural activity (p. 58).
CT (Computed Tomography) Scan: An imaging method that uses x-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the brain (p. 59).
PET (Positron Emission Tomography): An imaging technique that detects metabolic activity in the brain using radioactive tracers (p. 59).
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): A method that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of the brain structures (p. 59).
fMRI (Functional MRI): A specialized MRI that measures and maps the brain's activity by detecting changes in blood flow (p. 59).
Brain Structures
Hindbrain: The posterior part of the brain, involved in vital functions (p. 63).
Midbrain: Part of the brain located between the hindbrain and forebrain, involved in functions such as vision and hearing (p. 63).
Forebrain: The largest part of the brain, involved in complex behaviors and mental processes (p. 65).
Brainstem: Connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls basic life functions (p. 65).
Medulla: Controls involuntary functions such as heartbeat and breathing (p. 65).
Thalamus: Serves as the brain's relay station, directing sensory messages to the cortex (p. 65).
Reticular Formation: Involved in arousal and attentiveness (p. 65).
Cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary movements and balance (p. 66).
Limbic System: Associated with emotions, memories, and arousal (p. 66).
Amygdala: Involved in emotion regulation, particularly fear (p. 60).
Hypothalamus: Regulates bodily functions such as temperature, hunger, and thirst (p. 67).
Hippocampus: Essential for memory formation and spatial navigation (p. 69).
Cerebral Cortex: The outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher brain functions (p. 71).
Frontal Lobes: Involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language (p. 71).
Parietal Lobes: Processes sensory information, including touch and temperature (p. 71).
Occipital Lobes: Responsible for visual processing (p. 71).
Temporal Lobes: Involved in auditory perception and memory (p. 71).
Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary movements (p. 72).
Somatosensory Cortex: Processes sensory input from the body (p. 74).
Association Areas: Integrate information from different sensory modalities (p. 75).
Neurogenesis: The process of generating new neurons in the brain.
Notes on Consciousness and Sleep
Split Brain (p. 82): Condition resulting from severing the corpus callosum, which can help to treat severe epilepsy; it creates two independent hemispheres.
Consciousness (p. 87): A state of awareness of ourselves and our environment; can range from alertness to altered states like sleep.
Cognitive Neuroscience (p. 88): The interdisciplinary study of the brain and its role in mental processes, merging neuroscience and psychology.
Dual Processing (p. 90): The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.
Blindsight (p. 90): A condition where individuals can respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them, typically due to damage in the visual cortex.
Parallel Processing (p. 91): The ability of the brain to process multiple aspects of a situation simultaneously, such as color, motion, and shape in visual perception.
Sequential Processing (p. 91): The processing of information one step at a time; often used in problem-solving by focusing on one aspect at a time.
Sleep (p. 93): A periodic, natural loss of consciousness, distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma or general anesthesia.
Circadian Rhythm (p. 94): The biological clock that regulates the 24-hour cycle of biological processes, including sleep-wake cycles.
REM Sleep (p. 94): A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movement, increased brain activity, and vivid dreaming.
Alpha Waves (p. 95): Brain waves that indicate a relaxed, awake state; typically occur when a person is awake but relaxed.
NREM Sleep (p. 95): Non-REM sleep stages, including light and deep sleep phases, with different characteristics than REM sleep.
Hallucinations (p. 96): Sensory experiences without external stimuli, which can occur during altered states of consciousness like sleep deprivation.
Hypnagogic Sensations (p. 96): Transitional sensations that occur just before falling asleep, which may include hallucinations or muscle spasms.
Delta Waves (p. 96): Slow brain waves associated with deep sleep; crucial for restorative sleep processes.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) (p. 98): A cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus that regulates circadian rhythms and sleep-wake cycles.
Insomnia (p. 107): A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep, affecting overall health and well-being.
Narcolepsy (p. 107): A chronic sleep disorder marked by overwhelming daytime drowsiness and sudden attacks of sleep.
Sleep Apnea (p. 107): A sleep disorder where breathing repeatedly stops and starts, leading to disrupted sleep and oxygen deprivation.
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (p. 107): A condition where individuals act out their dreams due to loss of normal muscle atonia during REM sleep.
Dream (p. 109): A sequence of images, thoughts, and sensations occurring during sleep, often associated with REM sleep.
Sigmund Freud (p. 110): Renowned psychologist who developed theories about the interpretation of dreams and the unconscious mind.
REM Rebound (p. 112): The tendency to experience increased amounts of REM sleep when deprived of it, indicating its physiological necessity.
Sensation (p. 116): The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies.
Sensory Receptors (p. 116): Specialized cells that detect environmental stimuli and convert them into neural signals for processing.
Key Concepts in Psychology
Split Brain (p. 82): Condition resulting from severing the corpus callosum to alleviate severe epilepsy, leading to two independent hemispheres in the brain.
Consciousness (p. 87): Awareness of self and environment, encompassing various states from alertness to altered states such as sleep.
Cognitive Neuroscience (p. 88): Interdisciplinary study merging neuroscience and psychology to understand how brain function relates to mental processes.
Dual Processing (p. 90): The principle that information is processed simultaneously on conscious and unconscious levels.
Blindsight (p. 90): A condition allowing individuals to respond to visual stimuli without conscious visual perception, often due to visual cortex damage.
Parallel Processing (p. 91): The brain's ability to process multiple elements of a situation simultaneously (e.g., color and motion in vision).
Sequential Processing (p. 91): Processing information step-by-step, typically used in problem-solving.
Sleep (p. 93): A periodic natural loss of consciousness distinct from coma or anesthesia.
Circadian Rhythm (p. 94): The biological clock regulating 24-hour cycles, including sleep-wake patterns.
REM Sleep (p. 94): A sleep stage marked by rapid eye movement, increased brain activity, and vivid dreaming.
Alpha Waves (p. 95): Brain waves indicative of a relaxed, awake state.
NREM Sleep (p. 95): Stages of non-REM sleep including light and deep phases, differing from REM sleep.
Hallucinations (p. 96): Sensory perceptions without external stimuli, often occurring with altered consciousness like sleep deprivation.
Hypnagogic Sensations (p. 96): Transitional sensations just before sleep onset, which may include brief visual or physical sensations.
Delta Waves (p. 96): Slow brain waves common in deep sleep, essential for restoration.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) (p. 98): Neurons in the hypothalamus regulating circadian rhythms and sleep-wake cycles.
Insomnia (p. 107): Difficulty in falling or staying asleep, impacting health and well-being.
Narcolepsy (p. 107): A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden sleep attacks.
Sleep Apnea (p. 107): A disorder where breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep, disrupting rest and oxygen levels.
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (p. 107): Acting out dreams due to loss of normal muscle paralysis during REM sleep.
Dream (p. 109): Sequences of thoughts, images, and sensations occurring during sleep, especially during REM.
Sigmund Freud (p. 110): Influential psychologist known for theories on dreams and the unconscious mind.
REM Rebound (p. 112): Increased REM sleep following deprivation, indicating its physiological importance.
Sensation (p. 116): The process through which sensory receptors and the nervous system receive and represent stimuli.
Sensory Receptors (p. 116): Specialized cells that detect environmental stimuli and convert them into neural signals for the brain.
Hearing and Senses Notes
Middle Ear (p. 137): The part of the ear that contains the ossicles, which amplify sound vibrations from the outer ear to the inner ear.
Cochlea [KOHK-lee-uh] (p. 137): A spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear that converts sound vibrations into neural signals.
Inner Ear (p. 137): The innermost part of the ear, including the cochlea and the vestibular system, responsible for hearing and balance.
Sensorineural Hearing Loss (p. 138): Hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve, leading to issues with sound processing.
Conduction Hearing Loss (p. 138): Hearing loss resulting from problems with the outer or middle ear that prevent sound from being transmitted to the inner ear.
Cochlear Implant (p. 138): A medical device that bypasses damaged hair cells in the cochlea to directly stimulate the auditory nerve, providing a sense of sound.
Place Theory (p. 140): The theory that different frequencies of sound stimulate different locations on the cochlea's basilar membrane, affecting how we perceive pitch.
Frequency Theory (p. 140): The theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling to the brain matches the frequency of the sound, allowing for pitch detection.
Gate-Control Theory (p. 145): A theory that explains how the spinal cord may allow painful stimuli to pass or block signals based on the context, influencing pain perception.
Gustation (p. 148): The sense of taste, which involves the detection of taste stimuli through taste buds on the tongue.
Olfaction (p. 149): The sense of smell, which involves the detection of odor molecules by receptors in the nasal cavity.
Kinesthesis [kin-ehs-THEE-sis] (p. 152): The sense that provides awareness of body position and movement through receptors in the muscles and joints.
Vestibular Sense (p. 152): The sense responsible for balance and spatial orientation, utilizing structures in the inner ear.
Sensory Interaction (p. 154): The phenomenon where one sense influences another, such as how taste can be affected by smell.
Embodied Cognition (p. XX): A theory suggesting that cognitive processes are deeply rooted in the body's interactions with the world, emphasizing the role of bodily sensations in thought processes.
The Nature-Nurture Issue: The longstanding debate regarding the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human development and behavior. It explores how both genetics and experiences shape psychological traits and impacts various fields such as psychology, genetics, and sociology.