AP United States Government & Politics Complete Study Guide

Enlightenment Influences: Locke provided the foundation for natural rights ( $life$ , $liberty$ , $property$ ) and the right to revolution; Montesquieu shaped the separation of powers and checks and balances; Rousseau popularized popular sovereignty.
Articles of Confederation: Failed due to a lack of power to tax, no executive branch, and the requirement of a unanimous vote for amendments. Shays' Rebellion ( $1786–87$ ) demonstrated the weakness of the central government.
Constitutional Compromises: The Great Compromise created a bicameral legislature ( $House$ based on population, $Senate$ with $2$ per state); the Three-Fifths Compromise counted enslaved individuals as $3/5$ for representation only; the Electoral College was established to select the president ( $270/538$ votes to win).
Types of Democracy: Participatory (direct involvement), Pluralist (competing groups), and Elite (power held by the wealthy/educated).
Federalism: Powers are divided into Delegated (federal), Reserved ( $10^{th}$ Amendment/states), and Concurrent (both). Federal grants include Categorical (strict rules) and Block (broad state discretion).

Congress Structure: The House ( $435$ members, $2$ -year terms) initiates revenue bills and impeaches; the Senate ( $100$ members, $6$ -year terms) confirms nominees and ratifies treaties. A filibuster is ended by cloture, requiring $60$ votes.
Legislative Process: Bills go through committees, subcommittees, and floor debates before reconciliation in a conference committee. Presidents can sign, veto, or pocket veto (allowing a bill to die if Congress adjourns within $10$ days).
The Presidency: Formal powers include being commander in chief and appointing judges; informal powers include executive orders and executive agreements. The War Powers Act ( $1973$ ) requires notification within $48$ hours of deployment with a $60$ -day limit without congressional approval.
The Bureaucracy: Organized into cabinet departments ( $15$ ), independent agencies, independent regulatory commissions (designed for independence from the president), and government corporations.
The Federal Courts: A three-tier system of $94$ District Courts (original jurisdiction), $13$ Circuit Courts (appellate), and the Supreme Court. Judicial philosophies include restraint (deferring to legislatures) and activism (overturning laws to reflect evolving values).

Selective Incorporation: The process of applying the Bill of Rights to states via the $14^{th}$ Amendment due process clause on a case-by-case basis.
First Amendment Speeches: Protected unless they present a "clear and present danger" (Schenck v. United States, $1919$ ) or cause "substantial disruption" (Tinker v. Des Moines, $1969$ ).
Religious Freedom: The Establishment Clause prohibits school-sponsored prayer (Engel v. Vitale, $1962$ ), while the Free Exercise Clause protects religious practices like the Amish removal of children from school (Wisconsin v. Yoder, $1972$ ).
Rights of the Accused: Includes protections against unreasonable searches ( $4^{th}$ Amendment), the exclusionary rule, the right to an attorney (Gideon v. Wainwright, $6^{th}$ Amendment), and Miranda rights ( $5^{th}$ Amendment).
Civil Rights Milestones: The $14^{th}$ Amendment provides equal protection; Brown v. Board of Education ( $1954$ ) ended school segregation ( $9–0$ decision); the Civil Rights Act ( $1964$ ) and Voting Rights Act ( $1965$ ) targeted systemic discrimination.

Socialization: Family is the strongest factor. Education, religion, and location (rural vs. urban) also shape views.
Political Ideologies: Liberals favor government intervention for social/economic issues and economic regulation; Conservatives favor lower taxes, laissez-faire economics, and social tradition.
Polling Types: Benchmark (baseline), Tracking (changes over time), Entrance/Exit, and Push (designed to influence). Polling accuracy is measured by sampling error.
Media Role: Influences politics through agenda-setting (deciding which stories matter) and horse-race coverage (focusing on polls over policy).

Two-Party System: Maintained by winner-take-all elections and the Electoral College.
Primaries: Types include Closed (party members only), Open (any voter), and Caucuses. Front-loading is the practice of moving primaries earlier.
Campaign Finance: PACs can donate up to $\$5,000$ directly to candidates; Super PACs, authorized by Citizens United v. FEC ( $2010$ ), can raise and spend unlimited amounts on independent expenditures but cannot coordinate with candidates.
Voting Models: Rational choice (self-interest), Retrospective (past performance), Prospective (future plans), and Party-line (consistent party support).

Marbury v. Madison ( $1803$ ): Established judicial review.
McCulloch v. Maryland ( $1819$ ): Confirmed federal supremacy and implied powers.
United States v. Lopez ( $1995$ ): Limited federal power under the commerce clause.
Gideon v. Wainwright ( $1963$ ): Incorporated the right to counsel to states.
Roe v. Wade ( $1973$ ): Established a right to privacy regarding abortion.
Citizens United v. FEC ( $2010$ ): Protected corporate political spending as free speech.
Baker v. Carr ( $1962$ ) and Shaw v. Reno ( $1993$ ): Addressed redistricting and racial gerrymandering.

Declaration of Independence: Outlined natural rights and grievances; not a legal document.
Federalist No. $10$ : Large republic manages factions; Federalist No. $51$ : Checks and balances prevent tyranny.
Federalist No. $70$ : Unitary executive; Federalist No. $78$ : Judicial review and independence.
Brutus No. $1$ : Anti-Federalist argument for small republics and state power.
Letter from a Birmingham Jail: Argument for nonviolent direct action to combat unjust laws.

Bill of Rights: $1^{st}$ (freedoms), $2^{nd}$ (arms), $4^{th}$ (search), $5^{th}$ (due process), $6^{th}$ (trial), $8^{th}$ (punishment), $10^{th}$ (reserved powers).
Civil War Amendments: $13^{th}$ (abolished slavery), $14^{th}$ (citizenship/equal protection), $15^{th}$ (voting rights for Black men).
Modern Amendments: $17^{th}$ (direct Senate elections), $19^{th}$ (women's suffrage), $22^{nd}$ (presidential term limits), $24^{th}$ (poll tax abolished), $26^{th}$ (voting age lowered to $18$ ).

Civil Rights Act of $1964$ : Banned discrimination in public spaces and employment.
Voting Rights Act of $1965$ : Eliminated literacy tests and provided federal election oversight.
Title IX ( $1972$ ): Prohibited gender discrimination in federally funded education.
War Powers Act ( $1973$ ): Attempted to limit presidential military power.
Welfare Reform Act ( $1996$ ): Turned welfare into state block grants and added work requirements.