PSY2071_Week 3 Infancy and Early Childhood_MSS_8.3.24

Measuring Health: Apgar Scale The Apgar scale measures health immediately after birth through a score based on five criteria assessed at 1 and 5 minutes, and again at 10 minutes if there are concerns. The scores are interpreted as follows:

• 7 to 10: Healthy

• 4 to 6: Less healthy but usually responsive to attention (e.g., resuscitative measures)

• 3 to 0: Immediate danger, requiring resuscitation

Low scores may indicate:

• Existing fetal issues

• Birth process complications

• Temporary oxygen deprivation (anoxia)

Sleep Patterns in NewbornsSleep is a primary state for newborns, with co-sleeping common in Indigenous and non-Western cultures, while separate sleeping arrangements are standard in Western societies. Research indicates that infants who co-sleep wake more frequently but for shorter durations, potentially leading to parents getting more rest (Krouse et al., 2012).

Motor Development: ReflexesReflex Categories: Motor responses in newborns can be classified into three main types:

• Primitive Reflexes

• Postural Reflexes

• Locomotor Reflexes

Early reflex movements may set the groundwork for later voluntary motor skills. The presence of continued newborn reflexes beyond the expected duration can indicate neurological anomalies.

Cephalocaudal PrincipleBody growth tends to follow a pattern where development starts at the head and progresses downwards.

Major Reflexes Table

Primitive ReflexesMoro Reflex: In response to loud sounds or sensations, the infant throws arms outward and then brings them back together.Grasping Reflex: The infant curls fingers around objects placed in their palm.Tonic Neck Reflex: When laid on the back, the head turns, extending limbs on one side and flexing on the opposite.Babinski Reflex: Stroking the bottom of the foot causes toes to fan and then curl.Stepping Reflex: If held upright, infants may lift their legs as though stepping.Swimming Reflex: In water, infants instinctively move arms and legs and hold breath.

Disappearance of these reflexes generally indicates normal neural development.

Fine and Gross Motor SkillsInfants begin to develop fine motor skills, allowing for reaching, grasping, and manipulating objects before they start walking. Physical milestones such as sitting, rolling, and crawling typically precede walking, which generally occurs within the first year of life. Observation of individual variations in the acquisition of motor skills is crucial.

Early Cultural and Sex Differences in Motor DevelopmentStudies indicate cultural variations in motor skill development linked to child-rearing practices, with no significant sex differences observed in early motor skills. Some findings suggest boys may be more physically active than girls, but individual differences are paramount.

Measuring Motor DevelopmentKey assessments include:

• Brazelton’s Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) for newborns' reflexes.

• Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development covering motor and mental abilities from 1 month to 3.5 years.

• Denver Developmental Screening Test assesses various development skills up to 6 years.

Developmental Milestones in Gestational AgeDifferentiation in infant birth categories:

• Full-term: 40 weeks

• Preterm: Born before 37 completed weeks

• Low Birth Weight: Babies weighing less than 2500 grams (normal)

• Very Low Birth Weight: Less than 1250 grams

Preterm birth significantly impacts health outcomes, with a higher correlation to developmental impairments.

Cognitive Development: A Study of MethodsResearch methods explore cognitive development by tracking changes in arousal, attention, and response to stimuli. Key concepts such as recognition and habituation facilitate knowledge retention from past experiences.

Visual ThinkingInfants develop object and shape perception, depth perception (illustrated by the visual cliff test), and the ability to anticipate visual events by observing contours and complexities.

Auditory ThinkingInfants can localize sounds and start coordinating auditory and visual information around 5-6 months. Intermodal perception further enhances sensory integration throughout development.

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

• Assimilation: Integrating experiences into existing cognitive frameworks.

• Accommodation: Adjusting cognitive structures to include new experiences.

Sensorimotor StageDuring the sensorimotor stage, infants develop a growing understanding of the world through interaction with their environment.

Object PermanenceThis concept signifies that children understand objects continue to exist even when unseen, reflecting significant developmental milestones in cognitive growth.

Behavioural Learning ApproachEmphasizes learning through conditioning and imitation, where classical and operant conditioning play pivotal roles in shaping cognitive development.

Language Acquisition: Learned vs. Nativist ApproachesTwo primary perspectives exist on language acquisition:

• Learned Approach: Language follows reinforcement principles but struggles to explain how children form novel constructions.

• Nativist Approach (Chomsky): Proposes innate capacities for language development shaped by maturation.

Social and Environmental Influences on Language AcquisitionParental involvement, especially through infant-directed speech, significantly impacts language learning, as does cultural context, which shapes child-rearing practices and communication styles.

Attachment FormationAttachment reflects an emotional bond that evolves between a child and caregiver, influencing future relationships. Understanding attachment is critical, drawing from both human and animal studies. The phases of attachment formation include indiscriminate sociability, specific attachments, and partnerships over time.